Central sources of visual masking: Indexing structures supporting seeing at a single,brief glance

Summary When two briefly exposed, spatially overlapping visual fields are presented dichoptically, the identifiability of the first field is a J-shaped function of the interval separating their onsets. Three distinct sources of central masking are inferred from the selective influence of variables at different onset asynchronies. In integration through common synthesis, two fields presented at or near simultaneous onset yield one iconic representation. The distinctiveness of this source is inferred from the selective influence of eye dominance at and near simultaneous onset. At longer onset asynchronies, the selective influence of variables such as mask contrast and degree of contour overlap imply a second source of masking. This source was identified with the inhibition of sustained channels by transient channels reported elsewhere. Interchannel inhibition is proposed to affect the fidelity of the iconic representation, but here the imprecision is due to loss of form-relevant information on the first field. At yet longer onset asynchronies, where the fields are phenomenally separate, a third set of variables (e.g., words vs. nonwords and left vs. right visual fields) show their influence. These effects are taken as evidence of a replacement principle: the iconic representation of the second field directs attention from that of the first field. Here, first-field identifiability is constrained by time rather than by impoverished data.In a final series of experiments, central three-field interactions are demonstrated. A field, inserted into the temporal gap between two fields, is perceptually impaired even though it is separated from the first and third fields by intervals at which, individually, neither field is an effective mask. This second-field depression is accompanied by a first-field enhancement. The three sources of central masking are hard pressed to account for the three-field effects.     

Patterns of figurative language competence in adult speakers

Summary In an attempt to discover patterns of adult figurative language use, preference and comprehension, 30 Ss were asked to complete 4 different tasks: a composition, a test of simile preference, a test of simile production, and a test of metaphoric comprehension. Each test provided scores for both novel and clichéed usage. The composition task was also scored for total words while preference and production tasks were scored for literal usage, thus producing a total of 11 dependent variables across the complete set of tasks.Results revealed that Ss selected a higher number of novel figures under choice relative to production conditions. Correlational results revealed relationships across all 4 tasks for the categories of novel and frozen usage although certain tasks (i.e., simile preference and production) were more sensitive to novel diction while others (comprehension) were more sensitive to frozen diction. Within-task correlations, on the other hand, showed unique patterns for each of the tasks. Factor analyses of these correlations were found to produce a series of consistent three-factor solutions with the first of these factors concerned primarily with novel diction, the second with both novel and frozen comprehension, and the third primarily with frozen diction.Taken in combination, present results were interpreted to mean that while the distinction between novel and frozen is a meaningful one, specific task requirements can and do moderate the pattern of relationships obtained. This suggests that figurative language competence may not be a unitary process but one that is strongly affected by specific task and situational constraints and that future work, both methodological and theoretical, must take these factors into account.     

The Creative Use of Poetry in the Counseling Process

Poetry is an effective, creative tool in counseling. This article enumerates the advantages of using poetry and poetic methods (e.g., such language makes use of a natural system of communication) and mentions techniques for incorporating either the poem as a whole or in part. Ways of creating poetic awareness in counseling are emphasized. Guidelines for when to use poetry in counseling are suggested along with cautions on the incorporation of this method.     

A machine-level software program for the generation of aversive conditioning schedules using the KIM-1 microprocessor

A microprocessor system can be used both to control aversive conditioning (classical, signaled and Sidman avoidance, and conflict) experiments and to acquire behavioral data in multiple subjects at a fraction of the cost of solid state systems. The software described in this paper can be used to program tones and shocks and count responses, independently, in up to 12 animals simultaneously.     

Cognitive factors affecting sequential dependencies in differential eyelid conditioning

Sequential dependencies were examined as a function of learning, masking, and subject factors in a two-stage differential eyelid conditioning experiment. In Stage 1, all subjects were differentially conditioned to two Vanderplas and Garvin (1959) forms. In Stage 2, the conditional stimuli (CSs) were one of eight words, four reinforced (CS+) and four unreinforced (CS?), with taxonomic category (animalsvs. musical instruments) as the discriminandum, and different subjects were given semantic, physical, or no additional CS processing tasks. The results showed sizeable and highly significant sequential dependencies in the form of greater conditional response probabilities when CS + as opposed to CS? trials were recently experienced. These effects decreased overtrials, were greater in the groups given additional processing loads, and were in some cases greater in C-form responders than in V-form responders and greater in subjects who were unable to verbalize the differential contingencies. It was concluded that the magnitude of sequential dependencies was inversely related to the subject’s awareness of the differential contingencies and/or ability to use the contingency information to respond appropriately to the CS cues.     

Neuromuscular circuits in affect-laden information processing

Substantial evidence has accrued indicating the involvement of neuromuscular circuits in covert information processing. The physiological systems impartingemotional tone to covert processing, however, are less well understood. Reviewed here are findings from a variety of methodologies which suggest that somatic patterns, particularly in the face, reflect moment by moment emotional reactions. These findings imply neuromuscular involvement in affect-laden information processing; less conclusive, though suggestive, are data indicating that the proprioceptive feedback from these phasic and specific patterns of response are integrated cortically and influence covert processing and overt responding.     

Peer tutoring among elementary students: educational benefits to the tutor

To determine whether tutoring might be academically beneficial to the tutor, this study investigated the acquisition of spelling words by three elementary students in a peer tutoring program. The experimental design allowed a simultaneous comparison of each child's gain in performance on comparable word lists on which the child tutored another child, was tutored by another child, or neither gave nor received tutoring. The children's spelling improved nearly an equivalent amount on those words on which they tutored another child as on the words on which they were tutored; no such change was noted on the words on which they neither gave nor received tutoring. These findings, that peer tutoring is profitable for the tutor as well as the tutee, provide a basis for recommending peer tutoring as one method of individualizing education.