Helping is not enough: Recipient's reactions to aid as a function of positive and negative information about the self

The present research investigated the effects of experimentally induced positive and negative feedback about the self on the recipient's subsequent reactions to aid. In line with a consistency prediction, subjects given positive feedback who later received aid had lower mood ratings and less favorable self-evaluations than those who were given positive feedback but no subsequent help. Conversely, subjects given negative feedback who later received aid had higher mood ratings and more positive self-evaluations than those who were given negative feedback but no subsequent help. Subjects' evaluations of another individual were characterized by aid main effects, which indicate that an other who helped was evaluated more favorably than an other who did not help. The conceptual and applied implications of these results are discussed.     

Salt taste detection: an R-index approach to signal-detection measurements

The R-index approach to the signal-detection P(A) index of sensitivity was used to measure taste sensitivity to NaCl solutions. The R-index is the predicted probability of the correct choice of a signal, for a given signal-noise pair. For flow-wise and sipwise presentation, R-indices did not fluctuate significantly, provided subjects could not see the stimuli yet to be presented, indicating a lack of systematic sensitivity drift. The simultaneous measurement of more than one signal strength with reference to a common noise stimulus was seen to be a viable and sensitive procedure. Comparison of flow-wise and sipwise presentation of stimuli using R-indices, indicated that the former elicited greater subject sensitivity to NaCl taste.     

Cognitive factors affecting sequential dependencies in differential eyelid conditioning

Sequential dependencies were examined as a function of learning, masking, and subject factors in a two-stage differential eyelid conditioning experiment. In Stage 1, all subjects were differentially conditioned to two Vanderplas and Garvin (1959) forms. In Stage 2, the conditional stimuli (CSs) were one of eight words, four reinforced (CS+) and four unreinforced (CS?), with taxonomic category (animalsvs. musical instruments) as the discriminandum, and different subjects were given semantic, physical, or no additional CS processing tasks. The results showed sizeable and highly significant sequential dependencies in the form of greater conditional response probabilities when CS + as opposed to CS? trials were recently experienced. These effects decreased overtrials, were greater in the groups given additional processing loads, and were in some cases greater in C-form responders than in V-form responders and greater in subjects who were unable to verbalize the differential contingencies. It was concluded that the magnitude of sequential dependencies was inversely related to the subject’s awareness of the differential contingencies and/or ability to use the contingency information to respond appropriately to the CS cues.     

Effects of schedule and magnitude of reinforcement under conditions of thirst motivation

In contrast to a recent finding (Macdonald, G. E., & De Toledo, L. Learning and Motivation, 1974, 5, 288–298.) the results of three experiments investigating various partial reinforcement (PRF) manipulations under conditions of thirst motivation demonstrated strong similarity to analogous manipulations involving food reward. Specifically, for animals receiving water reinforcement, PRF was shown to generate greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement (Expt 1 & 3), the schedule of reinforcement was shown to interact with level of acquisition (Expt 1 and 2), and the magnitude of the partial reinforcement extinction effect was shown to be a function of reward magnitude (Expt 3). These results provide strong evidence that mechanisms which operate in partial reinforcement situations are highly similar, regardless of the type of appetitive reinforcement.     

The effects of stress on state and trait anxiety in emotionally disturbed,normal, and delinquent children

The effects of stress on trait and state anxiety of emotionally disturbed, normal, and delinquent children were assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC). This scale measures both transitory feelings of apprehension and tension that vary over time as a function of situational stress (A-State) and individual differences in the disposition to experience such anxiety states (A-Trait). Results indicated that A-State increased as a function of stress, whereas A-Trait was relatively stable and impervious to the temporary effects of stress. Use of the STAIC with normal and deviant populations was supported.     

Stimulus probability and same-different classification

Three experiments investigated the effect of stimulus probability on same-different classification time. In Experiments I and II, subjects made same responses on the basis of name matches of simultaneously presented letters. Half of the same trials involved letters that were also physically identical. Experiment I showed that the presentation probability of specific letters affected name matches and different responses, but not physical matches. Experiment II varied stimulus contrast as well as probability. Contrast had a main effect but did not interact with probability at any level of processing. In Experiment III, subjects were switched to the physical level of processing. Stimuli that now had the same name but differed in case were called different. In this condition, the probability effects obs(irved in Experiment II disappeared. These results are interpreted as demonstrating that stimulus probability has its effect during the process that derives the name of the stimulus from the visual representation. This process takes place before the name comparison is made, and the name comparison process precedes the determination of the different response.     

Divided attention, order of report and responses to immediately successive signals

Two effects, “divided-attention” and “order of report”, are operationally denned. Their relative contributions to the reduction in efficiency which accompanies the recognition of difficult nonverbal signals, presented simultaneously, is considered. Experiment I evaluated the two effects in the absence of a fixed order of report and emphasis instructions, confounding features of previous studies. The results showed: an overall impairment of performance with simultaneous signals; a contribution of both effects to the decrement, with a suggestion of the primacy of the “order of report” effect; and a significant interaction between the latter effect and modality, such that visual signals showed the greater effect. Experiment II using similar signals tested the assumption that simultaneity of presentation is a necessary condition for obtaining reduced efficiency with multiple signals. The assumption was only partially confirmed, a significant decrement in performance occurring only for the second of two successively presented signals. Similarities between the two sets of results are noted, as well as between these and modality differences obtained with verbal materials. Two possible accounts of the data are proposed, one based on “input”, the other on “storage” models of divided-attention. The hypothesis that subjects report the most clearly perceived signal first is rejected as an independent explanation.     

Psychosocial maturity and interpersonal attraction

Psychosocial maturity (PSM), assessed by scores on the Inventory of Psychosocial Development, was related to interpersonal behavior. In Experiment I PSM and proportion of attitude similarity was varied using Byrne's attraction paradigm in a between-subjects design. The personality variable failed to affect attraction. In Experiment II PSM and proportion of attitude similarity were manipulated in a within-subjects design. High PSM subjects rated the stranger significantly higher in attraction at high levels of similarity and significantly lower in attraction at low levels of similarity when compared to Low PSM individuals. The results were discussed in terms of design differences in personality research and potential mechanisms by which PSM affects attraction (self-esteem and/or competence).