Teaching adults new words: the role of practice and consolidation

Semantic and orthographic learning of new words was investigated with the help of the picture-word interference (PWI) task. In this version of the Stroop task, picture naming is delayed by the simultaneous presentation of a semantically related as opposed to an unrelated distractor word (a specific PWI effect), as well as by an unrelated word compared with a nonword (a general PWI effect). This interference is taken to reflect automatic orthographic and semantic processing. The authors observed that participants showed both types of PWI effects for newly learned words following a single study session. Interestingly, specific PWI effects were not obtained immediately after testing but did emerge a week later without additional practice. This suggests that a period of consolidation is involved in the establishment of word representations. In addition, identical PWI effects were obtained when the study and test words were presented in either the same or different letter case. This provides evidence that the newly acquired orthographic representations are coded in an abstract format.     

Anxiety and error monitoring: Increased error sensitivity or altered expectations?

This study tested the prediction that the error-related negativity (ERN), a physiological measure of error monitoring, would be enhanced in anxious individuals, particularly in conditions with threatening cues. Participants made gender judgments about faces whose expressions were either happy, angry, or neutral. Replicating prior studies, midline scalp negativities were greater following errors than following correct responses. In addition, state anxiety interacted with facial expression to predict ERN amplitudes. Counter to predictions, participants high in state anxiety displayed smaller ERNs for angry-face blocks and larger ERNs for happy-face blocks, compared to less anxious participants. These results are inconsistent with the simple notion that anxiety enhances error sensitivity globally. Rather, we interpret the findings within an expectancy violation framework, in which anxious participants have altered expectations for success and failure in the context of happy and angry facial cues, with greater ERN amplitudes when expectations are violated.     

STEPPING UP TO MOTHERHOOD AMONG INNER-CITY TEENS

This mixed-methods, context-oriented study explored transitions to motherhood among pregnant and newly parenting inner-city teenagers ( n = 80) attending an alternative public school. Additionally, a novel research approach was assessed. Using data from a 2-year psychotherapy trial, inductive content analyses of therapy sessions and post hoc interviews of clinicians were synthesized with questionnaires and other more traditional data sources to develop a strength-focused understanding of prominent life themes, as experienced by participants. Results suggested that, although few teens had planned to have a baby, a large majority were pleased to discover their pregnancies. A heightened sense of purpose emerged, connected with drastically increased safety-conscious behaviors. Still, public and familial alienation was common. Grandmothers and additional female mentors became central, and their support of the pregnancy was protective against teen mothers' depression. The research technique assessed in this study provided broad-ranging information with substantial validity and minimal time and expense.     

A short-term longitudinal study of preschoolers' (Homo sapiens) sex segregation: the role of physical activity, sex, and time

The interactive influence of preschool children's level of physical activity, sex, and time on the degree of sex segregation was assessed. A sample of nursery school children was observed across much of a school year, and levels of physical activity and sex segregation were sampled during their free play periods. Following sexual selection theory, we predicted a Sex X Time X Physical Activity interaction on segregation such that high-activity girls early in the school year would interact with boys but, with time, the high-activity girls would be segregated among themselves. Boys (both high- and low-activity) should remain segregated across the year. The hypothesis was supported, and results are discussed in terms of the interactive role of biology and socialization on sex segregation.     

The Value of Social Constructionism for the Counseling Profession: A Reply to Hansen

The authors reply to J. T. Hansen's (2005) call for the profession to revalue the inner subjective experiences (ISE) of clients. Hansen argued that social constructionism has influenced the decline of the counseling profession by obscuring its unique focus on ISE. The authors maintain that social constructionism is a useful framework for counseling, and they articulate a social constructionist position for counseling. Hansen's reasons for arguing that ISE must be revalued are discussed along with future directions for social constructionism and counseling.     

Inventor perseverance after being told to quit: the role of cognitive biases

We find that approximately one third (29%) of independent inventors continue to spend money and 51% continue to spend time on projects after receiving highly diagnostic advice to cease effort. Using survey data from actual inventors, this paper studies the role of overconfidence, optimism, and the sunk‐cost bias in these decisions. We find that inventors are more overconfident and optimistic than the general population. We also find that optimism and past expenditures increased perseverance after being told to quit, while overconfidence in judgment ability had no effect. After being told to quit, optimists spend 166% more than pessimists and those having already spent, for example, $10 000 spend another $10 000. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lip-read me now, hear me better later: cross-modal transfer of talker-familiarity effects

There is evidence that for both auditory and visual speech perception, familiarity with the talker facilitates speech recognition. Explanations of these effects have concentrated on the retention of talker information specific to each of these modalities. It could be, however, that some amodal, talker-specific articulatory-style information facilitates speech perception in both modalities. If this is true, then experience with a talker in one modality should facilitate perception of speech from that talker in the other modality. In a test of this prediction, subjects were given about 1 hr of experience lipreading a talker and were then asked to recover speech in noise from either this same talker or a different talker. Results revealed that subjects who lip-read and heard speech from the same talker performed better on the speech-in-noise task than did subjects who lip-read from one talker and then heard speech from a different talker.