The Development of Graphophonological-Semantic Cognitive Flexibility and Its Contribution to Reading Comprehension in Beginning Readers

Reading-specific and general color-shape cognitive flexibility were assessed in 68 first and second graders to examine: 1) the development of graphophonological-semantic cognitive flexibility (the ability to process concurrently phonological and semantic aspects of print) in comparison to color-shape cognitive flexibility, 2) the contribution of reading experience to graphophonological-semantic flexibility, and 3) the unique contribution of graphophonological-semantic flexibility to reading comprehension. Second graders scored significantly higher than first graders on both cognitive flexibility tasks; the general flexibility task was easier for all children than the graphophonological-semantic flexibility task; reading experience contributed uniquely to children's graphophonological-semantic flexibility; and graphophonological-semantic flexibility contributed significant, unique variance to children's reading comprehension, consistent with Cartwright's (2002 Cartwright , K. B. ( 2002 ). Cognitive development and reading: The relation of reading-specific multiple classification skill to reading comprehension in elementary school children . Journal of Educational Psychology , 94 , 56 – 63 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) work with second- to fourth-grade students and adults (2007 Cartwright , K. B. ( 2007 ). The contribution of graphophonological-semantic flexibility to reading comprehension in college students: Implications for a less simple view of reading . Journal of Literacy Research , 39 , 173 – 193 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]).     

More than just perception–action recalibration: Walking through a virtual environment causes rescaling of perceived space

Egocentric distances in virtual environments are commonly underperceived by up to 50 % of the intended distance. However, a brief period of interaction in which participants walk through the virtual environment while receiving visual feedback can dramatically improve distance judgments. Two experiments were designed to explore whether the increase in postinteraction distance judgments is due to perception–action recalibration or the rescaling of perceived space. Perception–action recalibration as a result of walking interaction should only affect action-specific distance judgments, whereas rescaling of perceived space should affect all distance judgments based on the rescaled percept. Participants made blind-walking distance judgments and verbal size judgments in response to objects in a virtual environment before and after interacting with the environment through either walking (Experiment 1) or reaching (Experiment 2). Size judgments were used to infer perceived distance under the assumption of size–distance invariance, and these served as an implicit measure of perceived distance. Preinteraction walking and size-based distance judgments indicated an underperception of egocentric distance, whereas postinteraction walking and size-based distance judgments both increased as a result of the walking interaction, indicating that walking through the virtual environment with continuous visual feedback caused rescaling of the perceived space. However, interaction with the virtual environment through reaching had no effect on either type of distance judgment, indicating that physical translation through the virtual environment may be necessary for a rescaling of perceived space. Furthermore, the size-based distance and walking distance judgments were highly correlated, even across changes in perceived distance, providing support for the size–distance invariance hypothesis.     

Attentional asymmetries in a visual orienting task are related to temperament

Spatial asymmetries are an intriguing feature of directed attention. Recent observations indicate an influence of temperament upon the direction of these asymmetries. It is unknown whether this influence generalises to visual orienting behaviour. The aim of the current study was therefore to explore the relationship between temperament and measures of spatial orienting as a function of target hemifield. An exogenous cueing task was administered to 92 healthy participants. Temperament was assessed using Carver and White's (1994) Behavioural Inhibition System and Behavioural Activation System (BIS/BAS) scales. Individuals with high sensitivity to punishment and low sensitivity to reward showed a leftward asymmetry of directed attention when there was no informative spatial cue provided. This asymmetry was not present when targets were preceded by spatial cues that were either valid or invalid. The findings support the notion that individual variations in temperament influence spatial asymmetries in visual orienting, but only when lateral targets are preceded by a non-directional (neutral) cue. The results are discussed in terms of hemispheric asymmetries and dopamine activity.     

The psychological costs of knowledge specialization in groups: Unique expertise leaves you out of the loop

Knowledge specialization, such as that present in cross-functional teams, produces both positive and negative outcomes. Our research investigated how unique expertise can lead to feelings of ostracism in the form of being out of the loop. Compared to group members with shared expertise, members with unique expertise felt out of the loop and experienced decreased fulfillment of fundamental needs, particularly when their expertise was to be given less weight in the group’s decision. Possessing unique expertise did not inhibit leadership emergence, even when that expertise should not have been used in the decision-making process. So, although knowledge specialization can have positive consequences for teams and task performance, it also has some negative psychological consequences that need to be understood.     

Unlockeing the root of all evil

Clipped Coins, Abused Words, and Civil Government: John Locke's Philosophy of Money, by Constantine George Caffentzis, New York: Autonomedia, 1989, 246 pages, pb $9.95.     

Psychological Hardiness Predicts Adaptability in Military Leaders: A prospective study

To perform effectively in complex mission environments, security personnel and leaders must be flexible and adaptable in responding to rapidly changing conditions. Psychological hardiness marks resilient people who maintain their health and performance despite stressful situations. The present study evaluates psychological hardiness at entry to West Point military academy as a predictor of leader performance and adaptability over time. Predictors also included Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, and a composite indicator of leader potential (Whole Candidate Score) taken from admissions records. Using the Pulakos adaptability taxonomy as a guide, adaptability performance items were taken from a survey of graduates given 3 years after graduation. Also, military leadership grades as West Point seniors provided an index of traditional military performance. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that Whole Candidate Scores predict military leader performance at West Point, but not leader adaptability after graduation. However, hardiness predicts leader performance at West Point, and also leader adaptability (self‐ and supervisor ratings) after graduation. SAT scores and the challenge facet of hardiness are negative predictors of leader performance at West Point. Results indicate that while the traditional measures Whole Candidate Score predicts leader performance in the stable, highly regulated environment of West Point, it does not predict leader adaptability and performance in the uncertain environment of real‐world operations. In contrast, psychological hardiness (commitment and control facets) measured as academy freshmen predicts leader adaptability in officers measured 7 years later. Psychological hardiness appears to be a promising factor in promoting the development of adaptability.