The Critical Mediating Role of Social Encouragement for Science Motivation and Confidence Among High School Girls and Boys1

Previous research has identified student status variables (gender, ability, and parent education level) and social influence variables (encouragement from family, teachers, and peers) as predictors of science attitudes. The present study tested the extent to which social encouragement mediates the relation between status variables and science motivation and confidence. In a sample of 184 senior high school students, social encouragement was a stronger predictor of science attitudes than status variables and mediated 72% of the variance in attitudes predicted by status variables. Encouragement from family, encouragement from teachers, and encouragement from peers were each independent predictors of science attitudes. The findings provide strong evidence of the critical importance of encouragement from social agents in the development of adolescents' motivation and confidence to achieve in science.     

Factors related to perceived helpfulness in supporting highly distressed individuals through an online support chat.

The purpose of the study was to examine the contribution made by dimensions of session-impact factors (depth and smoothness), end-of-session factors of client's mood (positivity and emotional arousal), and several textual variables (use of positive and negative emotional words; helper's and client's writing lengths) to perceived helpfulness of emotional support conversations carried on by trained, paraprofessional helpers through an Internet chat with highly distressed individuals. Two studies were conducted at an Israeli, exclusively online emotional support service for suicidal and highly distressed people who have undergone various negative experiences (SAHAR). Study 1 compared 40 chat conversations deliberately indicated by clients as having been helpful at the termination stage of session with 40 other conversations, using expert judgments of session-impact factors, as well as objective word counts for textual variables. Study 2 examined correlations between helpers' evaluation of the sessions' helpfulness to clients in 60 (other) chat support conversations and session-impact factors and textual variables. The findings of Study 1 showed that all four impact factors significantly differentiated between helpful and other conversations, while textual variables did not. In Study 2, the results showed that all four session-impact factors positively correlated with session helpfulness, yielding multiple R = 0.54, as well as the length of helper's and client's writing. The implications of these studies are similar to offline counseling sessions: deep, smooth conversations that yield positive responses and arouse clients' emotions in online support are more helpful than shallow, bumping conversations that leave clients emotionally indifferent. Longer writing, by both helpers and clients, seems to be an important factor, as well.     

APPEARANCE SELF-ATTITUDES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN AMERICAN WOMEN: MEDIA COMPARISONS AND INTERNALIZATION OF BEAUTY IDEALS

African American (AA) women have reported less body image disturbance than European American (EA) women, but questions remain about the nature and extent of this difference. This study examined differences in the body image of 80 AA women and 89 EA women with an improved methodology that controlled for body size, distinguished between satisfaction with and importance of body features, and included nonweight (e.g., hair texture, skin color) as well as weight-related features. Results provide evidence that, in contrast to AA women, EA women (a) were more dissatisfied with both weight and specific appearance features, (b) compared themselves more often to media beauty figures and internalized Western beauty standards more, and (c) showed a significant relation between media comparisons and body dissatisfaction. Internalization of Western beauty ideals was related to body dissatisfaction in both groups of women.     

Right under our noses: Ambient scent and consumer responses

Despite frequent mention, we know relatively little about the effect of ambient environmental factors on consumer behavior. This paper discusses one important aspect of the environment, ambient scent. Based on research from several disciplines, a model describing the effect of ambient scent on consumers is propossed. Ambient scent is portrayed as an environmental cue that is compared with scent preferences to influence affective responses and ultimately approach-avoidance reactions. Moderators of these presumed relationships are also described. Suggestions for empirical research are provided and implications for marketing management are presented.     

Effects of US-Alone Presentations on Human Evaluative Conditioning

In the context of evaluative conditioning, the effects of additional presentations of the unconditioned stimulus (US) prior to conditioning (US preexposure) or after conditioning (US postexposure) were examined using between- and within-subjects control conditions. Two experiments that differed with respect to the nationality of the subjects were conducted. In both experiments, US-alone presentations reduced the magnitude of the evaluative response. The US pre- and postexposure effects were observed in subjects classified as aware as well as in subjects classified as unaware of the experimental contingencies. Another finding is that the evaluative conditioning procedure described by Martin and Levey (1978; Levey & Martin, 1975) resulted in reliable conditioning effects also in an American sample, thus extending the scope of that special evaluative conditioning paradigm. The findings are discussed in the context of recent models of classical and evaluative conditioning. Especially, the unexpected US postexposure effect gives rise to speculations concerning the learning process underlying evaluative conditioning.