Novel popout with nonsense strings: Effects of predictability of string length and spatial location

Recent studies have shown that when one of four expected words is replaced by a single unexpected word, the unexpected word may capture attention. In three experiments, we explored the generality of this effect. In each experiment, observers viewed arrays composed of four computergenerated “nonsense” strings. Accuracy of string localization was assessed after each array. Some strings, calledfamiliar, appeared in many arrays, whereas others, callednovel, appeared in only one. In each experiment, novel strings in arrays composed of one novel and three familiar strings were localized more accurately than were novel strings in arrays composed entirely of novel strings, and familiar strings in these arrays were localized less accurately than were familiar strings in arrays composed entirely of familiar strings. These two effects, termednovel popout andfamiliar sink-in, respectively, were observed even when novel and familiar strings were rendered less discriminable by holding their lengths constant (Experiment 2) and when familiar strings always appeared in the same spatial locations (Experiment 3). The data suggest that novel objects can capture attention even when the objects lack any clear linguistic referent, when they are superficially similar to the familiar objects that surround them, and when the spatial locations of familiar objects are completely predictable.     

African American men's Gender Role Conflict: The significance of racial identity

This study examined the relationships between racial identity attitudes and gender role conflict in a sample of 95 African American men ages 23–80 years old. Participants completed the 1981 Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale by Parham and Helms and the 1986 Gender Role Conflict Scale by O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, and Wrightsman. Results indicated that racial identity attitudes were differentially related to patterns of gender role conflict when racial identity is externally defined. However, an internally defined racial identity had no relationship to gender role conflict. Results are discussed in terms of the significance of racial identity for understanding African American men's conflict associated with traditional male gender role standards and expectations.     

The gap effect for eye and hand movements

A temporal gap between fixation point offset and stimulus onset typically yields shorter saccadic latencies to the stimulus than if the fixation stimulus remained on. Several researchers have explored the extent to which this gap also reduces latencies of other responses but have failed to find a gap effect isolated from general warning effects. Experiment 1, however, showed a robust gap effect for aimed hand movements (which required determination of a precise spatial location), regardless of whether the hand moved alone or was accompanied by a saccadic eye movement. Experiment 2 replicated this aimed hand gap effect and also showed a smaller effect for choice manual keypress responses (which required determination of the direction of response only). Experiment 3 showed no gap effect for simple manual keypress responses (which required no spatial determination). The results are consistent with an interpretation of the gap effect in terms of facilitation of spatially oriented responses.     

Tokens for stuttering

Four young stutterers were observed during 10 weekly sessions. Each session was divided into pretreatment, treatment, and posttreatment segments. Redeemable tokens were administered contingent upon stuttering behaviors in the treatment segment of the Experimental condition. In a Parallel Control condition, no tokens were administered during the entire session. The differences between the pretreatment and treatment segments were compared for the two conditions. Three subjects had dramatically fewer stuttering behaviors when tokens were being administered, while the fourth had more stuttering under the same condition. The subject whose stuttering increased had a history of therapy in which voluntary, “faked” stuttering had been called for, and the behaviors that increased were judged to be of this type. The decreases were interpreted as suggesting that the contingent tokens acted to countercondition the aversiveness of the stuttering experience, which reduced the anticipation of stuttering and hence the stuttering itself. The increase was felt to be simple reinforcement. The counterconditioning interpretation was borne out in two clinical applications in which money was presented contingent on stuttering behaviors judged to be aversive to the stutterer, and in which dramatically sudden, but long-lasting, improvement was seen.     

Development of clinical tests of vision: Initial data on two hyperacuity paradigms

Many basic psychophysical functions offer promise as clinical tests of vision. Here, we discuss problems that one encounters in the clinical setting, how one identifies a psychophysical test for potential clinical development, and an orderly approach to development of suitable test paradigms. Parameters are selected which are relatively insensitive to variables encountered in the field (clinic) in a normal population, but which are sensitive to changes in the response system being studied. Initial data on two hyperacuity tests are presented. These tests are adaptations of hyperacuity paradigms (Westheimer, 1979) to a clinical environment. This particular test set offers promise because it exhibits a unique threshold which is dependent upon neural data processing and is relatively independent of retinal image degradation.     

Paid work,child care,and housework: A national survey of high school seniors' preferences for sharing responsibilities between husband and wife

A large national sample of high school seniors rated their preferences for the allocation of work and family duties within their own prospective marriages. The results indicate that many seniors favor half-time or full-time work for wives without children. On the other hand, the majority prefer that the mother of preschool children stay home, although half-time work is acceptable to many. Respondents who are male or White or did not have a working mother themselves are somewhat more conservative on these issues. Virtually all seniors view less than full-time employment by the husband as unacceptable. With regard to child care and housework, most seniors prefer equal sharing between the spouses. A comparison of four senior classes reveals a slight trend from 1976 to 1979 toward increased sharing of duties.     

A simple technique for lateralizing visual input that allows prolonged viewing

A simplified technique is described for obtaining lateralization of visual input with prolonged viewing. This technique is based on the presence of constant normal lateral limits for horizontal rotation of the eyes with reference to the head. With head movement prevented by use of a standard bite bar, and the eyes rotated to the left and held at their lateral limit, the temporal half of the visual field of the left eye may be used for lateralized input to the right hemisphere or vice versa for input to the left hemisphere. Any form of visual stimuli or visually monitored task can be used if confined within one of the extreme temporal hemifields. In comparison to previous methods, this technique is technically simple, inexpensive, without significant risk or discomfort to the subject, readily applicable to normal and various brain-lesioned subjects, and permits prolonged in-depth viewing. An alternative version of this technique uses a stabilized spectacle frame fitted with adjustable central occluders set to allow vision through only one or both of the extreme temporal hemifields.     

Oculomotor programming disturbances in the dementia syndrome

Three types of oculomotor programming disturbances are described in patients with the dementia syndrome. This report describes two of these abnormalities, poorly regulated gaze patterns and a programming type of gaze perseveration. All patients showed poorly regulated gaze patterns in contrast to the normal controls, whereas on the whole only the moderately affected patients showed the programming type of gaze perseveration. The third type of oculomotor programming disturbance is efferent perseveration of gaze (a hypokinetic, "staring" type of gaze pattern) and can be seen with severe dementia. The possible significance of these findings is discussed.     

Depth of nontarget processing in an attention task

Two studies examined the effect of the sensory discriminability of targets from nontargets on depth of nontarget processing. Subjects shadowed target words that were binaurally presented with coincident nontarget words. Targets and nontargets were spoken in the same male voice under low sensory discriminability and in male and female voices, respectively under high sensory discriminability. Across the two studies, depth of nontarget processing was assessed in three ways: extent to which shadowing accuracy was disrupted by a semantic overlap between targets and nontargets, expenditure of capacity (reaction time to subsidiary light signals), and nontarget recall. All three possible measures of depth of nontarget processing decreased as sensory discriminability increased. The data support the assumption of multiple-loci theories of attention that nontargets can be perceptually inhibited; they contraindicate the assumption of late-selection theories that perceptual processing is automatic and irrepressible.