Reaching for the unknown: Multiple target encoding and real-time decision-making in a rapid reach task

Decision-making is central to human cognition. Fundamental to every decision is the ability to internally represent the available choices and their relative costs and benefits. The most basic and frequent decisions we make occur as our motor system chooses and executes only those actions that achieve our current goals. Although these interactions with the environment may appear effortless, this belies what must be incredibly sophisticated visuomotor decision-making processes. In order to measure how visuomotor decisions unfold in real-time, we used a unique reaching paradigm that forced participants to initiate rapid hand movements toward multiple potential targets, with only one being cued after reach onset. We show across three experiments that, in cases of target uncertainty, trajectories are spatially sensitive to the probabilistic distribution of targets within the display. Specifically, when presented with two or three target displays, subjects initiate their reaches toward an intermediary or ‘averaged’ location before correcting their trajectory in-flight to the cued target location. A control experiment suggests that our effect depends on the targets acting as potential reach locations and not as distractors. This study is the first to show that the ‘averaging’ of target-directed reaching movements depends not only on the spatial position of the targets in the display but also the probability of acting at each target location.     

Religious Conversion in 40 Countries

Using data from the International Social Survey Program and the World Values Survey about current and former religious adherence, we calculate country-level religious-conversion rates for 40 countries. Drawing upon a theoretical model based on rational individual choice, we posit that the frequency of religious conversion depends on the cost of switching and the cost of having the "wrong" religion. Findings accord with several hypotheses: religious-conversion rates are positively related to religious pluralism, gauged by adherence shares; negatively related to government restrictions on religious conversion; positively related to levels of education; and negatively related to a history of Communism. Conversion rates are not related to per capita GDP, the presence of state religion, and the extent of religiosity. Effects from the types of religious adherence are minor, except for the negative effect of Muslim adherence .     

Concurrent reinforcement schedules for problem behavior and appropriate behavior: experimental applications of the matching law

This study evaluated how children who exhibited functionally equivalent problem and appropriate behavior allocate responding to experimentally arranged reinforcer rates. Relative reinforcer rates were arranged on concurrent variable-interval schedules and effects on relative response rates were interpreted using the generalized matching equation. Results showed that relative rates of responding approximated relative rates of reinforcement. Finally, interventions for problem behavior were evaluated and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior and extinction procedures were implemented to increase appropriate behavior and decrease problem behavior. Practical considerations for the application of the generalized matching equation specific to severe problem behavior are discussed, including difficulties associated with defining a reinforced response, and obtaining steady state responding in clinical settings.     

On the Incompatibility of Divine Foreknowledge and Human Freedom

I argue that the simple foreknowledge view, according to which God knows at some time t ₁ what an agent S will do at t ₂ , is incompatible with human free will. I criticize two arguments in favor of the thesis that the simple foreknowledge view is consistent with human freedom, and conclude that, even if divine foreknowledge does not causally compel human action, foreknowledge is nevertheless relevantly similar to other cases in which human freedom is undermined. These cases include those in which certain human actions are logically, rather than causally, foreclosed.     

Working memory and insight in the nine-dot problem

In the present article, we examine the contribution of working memory (WM) to solution of the nine-dot problem, a classic insight problem. Prior research has generally demonstrated a limited role for WM in the solution of insight problems, which are typically assumed to be solved without conscious planning. However, MacGregor, Ormerod, and Chronicle (2001) proposed an information-processing model that solves the nine-dot problem by relying on a visual WM mechanism, which they term lookahead. In the present research, we examine whether performance on the nine-dot problem is indeed predicted by WM capacity. The results indicated that spatial WM capacity predicted the tendency to draw lines outside the configuration of dots and predicted the solution on a hint-aided version of the problem. Furthermore, within those solving the problem, higher spatial WM capacity was also related to faster solutions. The results support the information-processing model and suggest a more essential role for WM and planning in insight problem solving than has previously been acknowledged.     

Relational aggression in marriage

Drawing from developmental theories of relational aggression, this article reports on a study designed to identify if spouses use relationally aggressive tactics when dealing with conflict in their marriage and the association of these behaviors with marital outcomes. Using a sample of 336 married couples (672 spouses), results revealed that the majority of couples reported that relationally aggressive behaviors, such as social sabotage and love withdrawal, were a part of their marital dynamics, at least to some degree. Gender comparisons of partner reports of their spouse's behavior revealed that wives were significantly more likely to be relationally aggressive than husbands. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that relational aggression is associated with lower levels of marital quality and greater marital instability for both husbands and wives. Implications are drawn for the use of relational aggression theory in the future study of couple conflict and marital aggression Aggr. Behav. 36:315–329, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Dialectical pluralism: A theoretical conceptualization of pluralism in psychology

A theoretical conceptualization of pluralism in psychology called dialectical pluralism is proposed in this paper. It is argued that this approach provides an effective and efficient basis for scientific progress in psychology. Three primary components of dialectical pluralism are developed. First, drawing on Royce's constructive dialectics, it is contended that tension between competing theories should be sustained in the hope of producing evaluative or integrative solutions. Second, the unity-disunity debate in psychology is reframed as a continuum and it is argued that oscillating periods of convergent and divergent pluralism would provide a productive model for scientific progress. Finally, intercontextualism is discussed as the underlying philosophical foundation for dialectical pluralism. This alternative to both mainstream psychology's positivist-empiricist foundations, as well as competing positions that may be more contextualist in orientation, is expounded as the justification for this new conceptualization. In particular, the limits of a methodological unity based on positivist-empiricist foundations, as well as of a pragmatic pluralism based on contextualist foundations, are both addressed by intercontextualism. As a result, dialectical pluralism may provide a middle ground between these two distinctive factions within psychology, while alleviating the fragmentation of the discipline.     

The REBT Competency Scale for Clinical and Research Applications

This paper presents the REBT Competency Scale which can be used in the evaluation of adherence to an REBT treatment model in clinical and research applications. The scale has been developed to map closely onto the REBT treatment protocol developed by Dryden et al. (A primer on rational emotive behaviour therapy, Research Press, Champaign, 2003). Based on this treatment protocol 21 core steps (tasks) were identified for effective REBT practice. Each step is operationally defined, the rater is reminded of how the step relates to REBT theory and practice and scoring criteria are established that enable a rating of the therapists performance of the task. The potential uses for and application of the scale in clinical and research settings are considered.