The Beck Anxiety Inventory in nonclinical samples: Initial psychometric properties

The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) was recently developed to assess clinical anxiety. Because one of its main features is a focus upon physiological sequelae of anxiety, the inventory may prove useful in nonclinical samples as well. The current paper provides initial psychometric properties with a nonclinical sample. Two studies are presented. The first presents scores and factor structure. A five factor solution was obtained, with one subjective and four somatic factors accounting for approximately 60% of the variance. The second study utilizes the total and factor scores to assess concordance with physiological responding. The total BAI correlated moderately with several physiological domains and with subjective distress. Factor scores were not consistently correlated with corresponding physiological domains. When subjects were divided into high- and low-anxiety groups, the relationships between self-report and physiological response increased in subjects with higher levels of anxiety. Results are discussed in terms of comparing clinical and nonclinical findings, use of the BAI in nonclinical samples, and future research.This research was supported in part by a grant to the first author from the Commission on Academic Excellence, University of Louisville.     

Self-posed behaviors of females and males in photographs

In a previous study, Ragan (1982) found systematic sex differences in the poses of persons photographed by professional photographers. In this study, 34 female and 34 male subjects posed themselves for a confederate, allegedly a photography student, who took the photographs from which data were drawn to assess sex differences in self-posed photographs. A MANOVA revealed overall significance with females smiling, canting, and orientating away from the camera more than males. An ANOVA produced significant sex differences for only the smiling data. Results are discussed in terms of Goffman's (1976) suggestion that photographers introduce their distortions into photographs and in terms of Duval and Wicklund's theory of objective self-awareness (1972).The author gratefully acknowledges the photographic assistance of Pam Bugg, Clay Langley, Jim Hamilton, and Susan Moore.     

Graduate Pre-Selection: Some Findings and their Guidance Implications

The application forms of graduate applicants to six organisations were analysed in two investigations. In the first, those features of the forms which predicted whether they were rejected or passed on for interview were discovered. These differed across organisational type, and included aspects of the way in which the form was completed and personal background factors, as well as experience and achievement. In the second investigation, the think-aloud protocols of recruiters as they read the application forms were analysed. Inferences from information rather than the information itself predicted decisions. It is concluded that careers advisers should offer instruction on a variety of matters relating to completion of application forms; and that graduate recruiters should continue to undertake the task of pre selection rather than seeking to 'farm it out'.     

Habit reversal treatment for fingernail biting

A controlled experiment was carried out on 40 habitual fingernail biters to test the following: (1) Whether or not Nunn and Azrin's (1976) ‘habit-reversal’ programme could be simplified and still be effective. (2) Whether or not the use of a competing response is essential for successful outcome. (3) Whether or not a programme of ongoing goals can enhance outcome results.The subjects were equally divided into three experimental groups and a waiting list control group. The experimental groups were: habit reversal plus nail care; habit reversal, nail care plus programme of ongoing target goals; nail care instructions plus programme of ongoing target goals. The dependent variables were length of nails in millimetres and presence or absence of nailbiting. All experimental groups showed significantly greater increases in fingernail length than the control group, but there was no significant difference between the different treatments. However, at follow-up, the two groups incorporating ‘habit reversal’ showed much lower relapse rates than the other experimental group; thus, supporting the argument that use of a competing response is a key component in effective treatment of such compulsive, maladaptive habits.     

A fresh look at the retention-promotion controversy

This article provides an overview of several issues relative to retention of school children. Included is a historical perspective on the present retention-promotion controversy, information on retention policies and retention prevalence rates, a review of research on the effectiveness of retention, and a discussion of several factors that should be considered by psychologists faced with the problem of making retention and promotion recommendations.     

Formal,systematic, and metasystematic operations with a balance-beam task series: A reply to Kallio's claim of no distinct systematic stage

This reply discusses the measurement of formal, systematic, and metasystematic stages. Recent multidomain studies have shown disparate results and we suggest that these results could be attributed not to actual variations in adult development or the existence or non-existence of stage, but instead may reflect differences in methodology regarding task, domain, and scoring. Our study indicates that when tested in only one domain—balance beams and extensions of those tasks—participants who performed at the higher stage were also able to perform at the lower stages. These results also coincide with similar studies conducted.     

Missed opportunities: Psychological ramifications of counterfactual thought in midlife women

Counterfactual thinking entails the process of imagining alternatives to reality—what might have been. The present study examines the frequency, content, and emotional and cognitive concomitants of counterfactual thinking about past missed opportunities in midlife women. At age 43, nearly two-thirds of the sample of educated adult women reported having missed certain opportunities at some time in their lives. Most of the counterfactual thoughts concerned missed opportunities for greater challenge in work. Emotional distress at age 33 did not predict later counterfactual thought. Instead, counterfactual thinking at age 43 was associated with concurrent emotional distress. However, acknowledging counterfactual thinking about the past was also associated with envisioning ways to change things for the better in the future. This suggests the possibility that the negative appraisal often entailed in counterfactual thinking may be associated with emotional distress in the short run but with motivational benefits in the long run, at least for middle-aged women.