We,Heirs of Enlightenment: Critical Theory,Democracy and Social Science

Abstract

My goal here is to come to terms with the Enlightenment as the horizon of critical social science. First, I consider in more detail the understanding of the Enlightenment in Critical Theory, particularly in its conception of the sociality of reason. Second, I develop an account of freedom in terms of human powers, along the lines of recent capability conceptions that link freedom to the development of human powers, including the power to interpret and create norms. Finally, I show the ways in which the social sciences can be moral sciences in the Enlightenment sense. This account provides us with a coherent Enlightenment standard by which to judge institutions as promoting development, understood in terms of the capabilities necessary for freedom. The relevant social science in this area might include the robust generalization that there has never been a famine in a democratic society.     

Maternal teaching techniques and preschool children's ideational fluency

As a counterpart to research showing relationships between parental behaviors and attitudes and children's divergent thinking, this study investigated mothers’ teaching techniques and preschool children's ideational fluency, one aspect of creativity. Twenty mother‐child dyads were videotaped interacting in both a warm‐up and structured teaching session. Mothers’ teaching behaviors were assessed with the Maternal Teaching Observation Technique (MTOT) and children's ideational fluency was measured with the Multidimensional Stimulus Fluency Measure (MSFM). Correlational analyses indicated relationships between children's divergent thinking and mothers’ use of verbal negative feedback (r = .51), physical control (r = ‐.40), and visual cues (r = ‐.44).     

Consequence of Self Versus Externally Generated Visual Motion on Postural Regulation

A limiting factor in the use of virtual environments to examine perception and action is that it is dependent on the quality of the interaction. A virtual reality game (first-person viewpoint with moderate difficulty) was used to investigate the link between control and postural regulation. Postural regulation was examined using a motion capture system, and the differences that emerged as a result of the participant being a passive observer versus an active participant were evaluated using a fractal procedure: dispersion analysis. A significant interaction was found between control and health, namely, participants' postural behavior tended to be less uniform when they were sick and when they were in control of the environment. These results lead the authors to suggest that successful interaction with novel environments depends on the ability to find and consistently use appropriate control strategies.     

Diagnosing Organizational Innovation: Measuring the Capacity for Innovation

Organizational innovation involves reconciling many contradictions or paradoxes. Dividing the process of innovation into phases ranging from Activation to Validation and examining each phase in terms of the six Ps of creativity offers a framework for making sense of these contradictions. The Innovation Phase Assessment Instrument (IPAI) was designed to assess organizations according to such an approach. The scale was administered to 454 student volunteers and an analysis of their responses indicated that the IPAI is highly reliable and has substantial construct validity. At a practical level, it can be used for assessing the strengths/weaknesses of organizations in a differentiated way and for making recommendations for improving their capacity for innovation. It is also a source of research questions for examining creativity and innovation in an organizational context.     

Visually Controlled Locomotion and Visual Orientation in Animals

A general theory of locomotor behavior in relation to physical objects is presented. Since the controlling stimulation for such behavior is mainly optical, this involves novel assumptions about object perception and about what is called visual kinaesthesis. Evidence for these assumptions is cited. On the basis of this theory it is possible to suppose that animals are visually oriented to the surfaces of their environment, not merely to light as such. In short, it is possible to explain why they seem to have space perception. Implications of this approach for maze-learning are pointed out.     

Executive Function as an Interaction-Dominant Process

Traditional theories of psychology define the cognitive system as composed of insular, encapsulated components, controlled by a central executive. An alternative hypothesis suggests that cognitive control arises from the complex interaction among temporal scales of activity within the system. We examined the hand motions of preschool-age participants gathered during an executive-function task, card sorting, for evidence of multiplicative interactions across temporal scales. The time series of hand motions were submitted to iterated amplitude adjusted Fourier transformation (IAAFT), a surrogate data analysis technique that removes nonlinear, multiscale dependencies while preserving the linear structure of the time series. We found that removing multiscale effects via IAAFT led to a significant change in the width of the multifractal spectrum, an indicator of multiplicative interactions. The results suggest that cognitive control may arise from the interactions among temporal scales of activity within the system rather than as the result of a central executive.     

Relatedness Support and the Retention of Young Female Golfers

In this study, self-determination theory was used as a guiding framework to understand the putative role of relatedness support for retention in golf among young females. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews with 10 female participants (M_age = 21.40, SD = 3.13). Content analyses revealed 5 distinct factors that contributed to the provision of relatedness support: Parents, Peers, Coaches, Golf Club, and Institutional and Societal Support. Findings highlighted that retention of female golfers may be facilitated through promoting valued relationships with parents, peers, coaches, and golf clubs. Policies that decrease the perceived marginalization of female participants may also be perceived as a form of relatedness support and may promote retention within this cohort. This study underscores the importance of relatedness support for young women and identifies strategies that may help to improve female retention in sport.     

Evaluation of a Mental Toughness Training Program for Youth-Aged Australian Footballers: I. A Quantitative Analysis

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of two different psychological skills training (PST) packages in enhancing mental toughness among three youth-aged (under 15 years old) Australian football teams. We compared a program targeting the keys to mental toughness identified previously (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008 Gucciardi, D. F., Gordon, S. and Dimmock, J. A. 2008. Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20: 261–281. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) with a more traditional PST program targeting self-regulation, arousal regulation, mental rehearsal, attentional control, self-efficacy, and ideal performance state as well as a control group. Overall, both intervention groups reported more positive changes in subjective ratings of mental toughness, resilience, and flow than the control group. Similar ratings for mental toughness were reported by the parents and coaches. Both PST packages appeared to be equally effective in enhancing mental toughness.     

Social cognitive models of health and exercise behavior: An introduction and review of conceptual issues

Abstract

This article reviews the major social cognitive models of adherence or compliance in health and exercise behavior and attempts to show that these models are more similar to each other than different from each other. Self-efficacy theory and the theory of reasoned action/planned behavior have guided most of the theory-based research on exercise behavior. Two other models, protection motivation theory and the health belief model, have guided much research on the role of social cognitive factors in other health behaviors. These models are comprised largely of the same basic set of social cognitive variables: self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, outcome value, and intention. Two other factors, situational cues and habits, although not common to all the models, round out the theoretical picture by explaining how the relationship between the major social cognitive variables and behavior may change with repeated performance of a behavior over time.An integration of these models is offered using the theory of planned behavior as a foundation. It is suggested that research on health and exercise behavior that pits one model against another to determine which one is the better predictor of behavior is likely to be unproductive due to the striking similarities of the models. It is suggested instead that theorists and researchers focus their efforts on integration of the major social cognitive models and on determining the relative predictive utility of the various social cognitive factors with various health behaviors and in various contexts.