Variations in watch keeping performance as a function of the rate and duration of visual signals

This study was designed to assess the relative effects on watch keeping performance of five signal durations (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and 8.0sec) combined factorially with five signal rates (6, 12, 24, 48, and 96 sig/h). A visual display consisting of a red and green light mounted on a vertical vector was used; red-onset and green-offset were critical signals. The probability of correct detections increased monotonically with increases in signal duration; a stable rate of nearly 100% detection was approached at signal durations of 4.0 and 8.0 sec, independently of signal rates. The likelihood of detection was enhanced by increases in signal rates only at the 0.5-sec duration with the green-offset critical signal. Response time to correct detections increased with time on watch, independently of signal rates and durations.     

Individual differences in secondary task performance

The purpose of this research was to use secondary task performance as a predictor of performance on a difficult primary task. Reaction time (RT) to secondary probes that occurred during the rehearsal period of an easy memory task were used to measure spare capacity associated with the memory task. This measure was then correlated with performance on a harder version of the same memory task. Experiments 1-4 involved a paired associate memory task. Probe RT was sensitive to the difficulty of the paired associate task, and analysis of individual differences showed that probe RT during the easy version of the task was correlated with performance on a harder version of the task. Experiment 4 also utilized a spatial memory task. Probe RT was less sensitive to the demands of the spatial memory task, and in that case, the "easy-to-hard" prediction was not successful.     

Effects of stimulus-response uncertainty on watchkeeping performance and choice reactions

The present study was conducted to assess the effects of S-R uncertainty on performance in watchkeeping and typical type-b choice-reaction situations. The assessment was based in part on measurements of S-R compatibility effects in the two performance conditions. Four levels of S-R uncertainty (1, 2, 3 and 4 bits/S-R event) were combined factorially with two levels of S-R compatibility (high and low) and the two kinds of tasks (watchkeeping and choice-reaction); 12 Ss were assigned at random to each of the 16 conditions. A matrix of lights was used as stimuli in the choice-reaction condition; Ss monitored the matrix for a I-h duration in the watchkeeping condition. In both tasks, Ss responded by pressing a corresponding key after the presentation of a stimulus or “critical signal.” Reaction time (RT) was found to be an increas ing linear function of S-R uncertainty in both tasks. and the effects of S-R compatibility were essentially identical in the two. However, choice reactions were significantly faster than watchkeeping responses, and the rate of gain of information in watchkeeping was greater than in the comparable choice-reaction situations. The results are interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that watchkeeping differs from the simpler choice-reaction task principally in presenting an additional source of (temporal) uncertainty for information processing.     

Effects of discriminability and irrelevant information on absolute judgments’

The effects of irrelevant information (0, 1, 2, or 3 bits stimulus) on absolute judgments of size were measured at different levels of discrimination difficulty. The stimuli were 7 small circular spots of light of different sizes, selected from an eaual-discriminability scole, and arranged into 6 pairs that represented different levels of stimulus dissimilarity. Three of the pairs comprised a low-dissimilarity (LD) subgrouping in which different lepels of dissimilarity and discriminability were confounded, whereas the remaining three pairs comprised a high-dissimilarity (HD) subgrouping in which different levels of dissimilarity occurred at a single high level of discriminability. Different colors were used to provide the four levels of irrelevant information; 240 Ss (10 in each of the 24 experimental conditions) made absolute judgments of size under the classical procedure for the method of single stimuli. Separate analyses of errors, reaction times, and rates of information transmission indicated that irrelevant information had an increasingly detrimental effect on absolute judgments as discrimination difficulty was increased (in the LD subgroup), but essentially no effect where discriminations were easily modefin the HD subgroup).     

Factual Evidence without Knowledge

A central function of our evidence is to constrain the epistemic rationality of our propositional attitudes. Our knowledge does this. That fact supports Timothy Williamson's contention that our evidence is identical to our knowledge, ‘E=K’. But it is argued here that some true propositions are evidence without being known. Some of them cannot be known; others are contingently not known. Propositions play the rational role of evidence whenever they are clearly true, whether or not they are known.     

The Influence of Episodic and Thematic Frames on Policy and Group Attitudes: Mediational Analysis

An experiment examined how episodic and thematic political message frames affect attitudes toward older adults and Social Security. When exposed to messages about abolishing Social Security, participants exposed to episodic frames were significantly more likely to endorse message‐consistent attitudes than participants exposed to a thematic frame. In mediation analyses, an episodic frame featuring a counterstereotypical exemplar increased endorsement of individual responsibility for retirement planning, which then led to more negative attitudes toward Social Security. These effects did not occur with a stereotypical exemplar in an episodic frame. The same mediated pathway influenced attitudes toward older adults in a more complex manner. Results provide support for individual responsibility attributions as a mediating mechanism underlying the effects of certain episodic frames.