Wild birds recognize individual humans: experiments on magpies, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pica pica</Emphasis>

The ability to distinguish among heterospecific individuals has been reported in only a few animal species. Humans can be viewed as a special type of heterospecifics because individuals differ widely in behavior, ranging from non-threatening to very threatening toward animals. In this study, we asked whether wild magpies can recognize individual humans who had accessed their nests. We compared the behavior of breeding pairs toward individual humans before and after the humans climbed up to the birds’ nests, and also toward climbers and non-climbers. We have evidence for (i) aggressive responses of the magpie pairs toward humans who had repeatedly accessed their nests (climbers) and a lack of response to humans who had not accessed the nest (non-climbers); (ii) a total lack of scolding responses toward climbers by magpie pairs whose nests had not been accessed; (iii) a selective aggressive response to the climber when a climber and a non-climber were presented simultaneously. Taken together, these results suggest that wild magpies can distinguish individual humans that pose a threat to their nests from humans that have not behaved in a threatening way. The magpie is only the third avian species, along with crows and mockingbirds, in which recognition of individual humans has been documented in the wild. Here, we propose a new hypothesis (adopted from psychology) that frequent previous exposure to humans in urban habitats contributes to the ability of birds to discriminate among human individuals. This mechanism, along with high cognitive abilities, may predispose some species to learn to discriminate among human individuals. Experimental tests of these two mechanisms are proposed.     

Development and validation of the Internalized Racial Oppression Scale for Black individuals

This article describes the development and validation of the Internalized Racial Oppression Scale (IROS) for Black individuals in 2 studies using a total sample of 468 Black college students. The IROS is intended to measure the degree to which racial oppression is internalized and replicated by Black individuals in the United States. An exploratory factor analysis suggested a five-factor solution: Belief in the Biased Representation of History (BRH), Devaluation of the African Worldview and Motifs (DAW), Alteration of Physical Appearance (APA), Internalization of Negative Stereotypes (INS), and Hair Change (HC). Confirmatory factory analysis supported an adequate model fit of a four-factor model: BRH, APA, INS, and HC. All factors of the IROS were positively correlated with the Pre-Encounter subscale of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B; J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996), and 4 of the factors were negatively correlated with the Immersion/Emersion subscale of the RIAS-B. Four factors of the IROS were negatively correlated with all subscales and total scores of the African Self-Consciousness Scale (J. A. Baldwin & Y. R. Bell, 1985). These results provide some support of the validity of the IROS.     

The impact of ignoring multiple membership data structures in multilevel models

This study compared the use of the conventional multilevel model (MM) with that of the multiple membership multilevel model (MMMM) for handling multiple membership data structures. Multiple membership data structures are commonly encountered in longitudinal educational data sets in which, for example, mobile students are members of more than one higher-level unit (e.g., school). While the conventional MM requires the user either to delete mobile students' data or to ignore prior schools attended, MMMM permits inclusion of mobile students' data and models the effect of all schools attended on student outcomes. The simulation study identified underestimation of the school-level predictor coefficient, as well as underestimation of the level-two variance component with corresponding overestimation of the level-one variance when multiple membership data structures were ignored. Results are discussed along with limitations and ideas for future MMMM methodological research as well as implications for applied researchers.     

A Longitudinal Examination of Serious Adolescent Offenders’ Perceptions of Chances for Success and Engagement in Behaviors Accomplishing Goals

We examined antisocial adolescents’ perceptions of the importance of and their ability to accomplish positive life outcomes (e.g., employment) and avoid negative ones (e.g., arrests) during their transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Participants were 1,354 adolescents from the Pathways to Desistance project, a multisite longitudinal study of seriously antisocial adolescents. Participants’ perceptions of the importance and likelihood of accomplishing positive adult goals at one age uniquely predicted how often they engaged in behaviors that were consistent with these goals the following year. Our findings suggest that among serious adolescent offenders aspirations to achieve positive goals are related to engaging in behaviors that bring adolescents’ current selves more in line with their aspired-to future selves. We discuss the implications of these findings for prevention and intervention efforts.     

The Compromise Effect in Choosing for Others

Most research into the compromise effect focuses on cognitive factors related to choosing for oneself. However, there are daily opportunities to make choices for others, from helping friends to buy merchandise to choosing souvenirs for relatives. Although it is a common practice, choosing for others is rarely discussed in the literature. Hence, this research is directed to determine whether (i) the compromise effect is greater for people choosing for others with whom one has a distant relationship compared to choosing for themselves, (ii) the decision maker's susceptibility to interpersonal relationships, accountability, and anticipated regret moderate the relationship between choosing for others versus choosing for themselves and the compromise effect, and (iii) the confidence of the decision maker mediates the relationship between deciding for others and the compromise effect. Five hypotheses are proposed and they are supported by the results from four experiments. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attachment and women’s faith development

This article explores the relationship between human attachment and God attachment, particularly in Christian women’s experiences of faith. It is based on the attachment perspective as a conceptual framework. The main aim was to evolve an attachment‐theoretical approach to women’s faith development and to offer a complementary path to interpret women’s faith development. The method was qualitative, as the data were collected via biographical narrative depth interviews. The findings suggest that an early attachment experience is a significant factor in the women’s faith development; three patterns of women’s faith are presented in which the differences in their images of self and God are represented accordingly.     

Improved localization of moving targets with prior knowledge of direction of target motion

In dynamic environments in which many stimulus elements are in motion, visual search may depend upon specific characteristics of target motion that are known in advance. When stimulus elements move in various directions but each element can move in only one direction, prior knowledge of the target's direction of motion reduces search time.     

Masking by combination tones and bands

Masking of a pure tone by a cubic difference tone or band generated by two pure tones or by a pure tone and a narrow band of noise as a function of the level of the masker was measured for three subjects at three ratios of f₂/f₁, 1.125, 1,2, and 1.3. The three maskers used were f₁ alone, f₁ + f₂, and f₁ + NBN (60-Hz band of noise centered at f₂). At ratio 1.125, the amounts of masking produced by f₁ alone and f₁ + NBN were not significantly different for all subjects. For ratios = 1.125 and 1.2, f₁ + f₂ produced the least masking at least in two of the subjects. f₁ + NBN was the best masker at ratios 1.2 and 1.3. These results show that the masking data on cubic difference tone at very small ratios of f₂/f₁ are not reliable due to the masking effect contributed by f₁. For higher ratios, the combination band has to be used instead of combination tone because of the interaction between the signal and the cubic difference tone. Also the divergence of the effectiveness in masking by the three maskers gives an estimation of the levels of primaries at which the cubic difference tone is generated.     

Patterns of adolescent involvement in problem behaviors: Relationship to self-efficacy,social competence,and life events

Using a sample of 556 adolescents from a suburban community, patterns of various adolescent problem behaviors (e.g., delinquent behavior, smoking, use of alcohol or drugs) and their links to self-efficacy, social competence, and life events were examined. Cluster analysis was conducted to identify four subgroups of adolescents who showed distinct patterns of problem behaviors. These clusters were compared on the measures of self-efficacy, social competence, and life events. Overall results suggest there are meaningful links between adolescents’ problem behavior patterns and self-efficacy, the amount and quality of participation in various after school activities, and life events. For example, a subgroup of adolescents who showed uniformly low prevalence of all problem behaviors reported more positive academic self-efficacy, more active participation in sports and nonsports activities, more positive life events, and fewer negative events than adolescents who were involved in multiple problem behaviors. Implications for prevention and future research on adolescent problem behaviors are discussed.