Childhood amnesia: Empirical evidence for a two-stage phenomenon

The term childhood amnesia refers to the inability of adults to remember events from their infancy and early childhood. If we plot the number of memories that adults can recall as a function of age during childhood, the number of memories reported increases gradually as a function of age. Typically, this finding has been used to argue that gradual changes in memory development contribute to a gradual decline in childhood amnesia during the preschool period. Alternatively, it is possible that pooling data across participants has obscured more abrupt, stage-like changes in the remission of childhood amnesia. In the present study we examined the number and distribution of childhood memories for individual participants. Six adults were repeatedly interviewed about their childhood memories. We found that the distribution of adults' early childhood memories may be less continuous than pooled data suggest. This finding has important implications for current explanations of childhood amnesia.     

A Developmental Evaluation of Frequency Memory for Actions Presented in Lists,Scripts, and Stories

Although some research suggests that misinformation provided by a co-witness could be more influential than that obtained from other sources, most of this research has compared the effect of co-witness information against non-social forms of misinformation only. To better understand the influence of co-witnesses we compared the influence of co-witness misinformation with the influence of misinformation provided by an interviewer. Across two experiments using the MORI paradigm we found no evidence that a co-witness is particularly influential relative to another social source of post-event misinformation. In fact, the source of the misinformation delivered by our interviewer was less likely to be correctly recalled than the source of the misinformation delivered by a co-witness. There was some evidence that misinformation delivered by both a co-witness and an interviewer has a stronger effect on witnesses' accuracy and confidence than misinformation obtained from either source alone. Finally, our results suggest that the opportunity to provide an early individual memory account might protect against the effect of subsequently-encountered co-witness misinformation. These results have important implications for the way that criminal investigations are conducted.     

Sport-Type Differences in Alcohol Use Among Intercollegiate Athletes

Prior research has found that (a) intercollegiate athletes are especially “at-risk” for excessive alcohol consumption (e.g., Nelson & Wechsler, 2001 Nelson, T. F. and Wechsler, H. 2001. Alcohol and college athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33: 43–47. [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF][Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and (b) sport-type differences exist among college athletes in terms of yearly drinking prevalence rates (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2001 National Collegiate Athletic Association. 2001. NCAA study of substance use habits of college student-athletes, Indianapolis, IN: Author.  [Google Scholar]). No studies, however, have examined sport-type differences on more specific measures of alcohol consumption (e.g., drinks per week), or examined potential mediators of the relationship between sport type and alcohol consumption. In the present study, data were analyzed on 298 intercollegiate athletes from two different universities. Resuls indicated significant sport type differences on alcohol consumption variables, with athletes from the sports of swimming and diving reporting the highest levels of alcohol consumption. Results provided partial support for the role of positively reinforcing drinking motives in mediating the sport type–alcohol consumption relationship. Findings are discussed in light of prior research in the area of college student–athlete alcohol consumption.     

The Meaning of Rorschach Inkblots,Responses and Determinants as Perceived by Children

Fifteen semantic-differential scales were applied to the Rorschach inkblots, to nine common Rorschach responses representing various Rorschach determinants, and to two determinants not embodied in responses. Ss consisted of third, sixth, and ninth grade public school children separated by sex within each group. Children significantly differentiated the inkblots on the semantic scales, with older children differentiating the blots more sharply. Girls differentiated the blots at an earlier age than did boys. Individual cards differed widely in regard to their strongest connotations. Children significantly differentiated the majority of responses and determinants on the semantic scales for all age groups. The connotations of the cards, responses and determinants tended to be consistent with commonly held Rorschach interpretations. In general, the findings for children were consistent with the results previously reported for adults. The connotations of chromatic inkblots were found to differ significantly from those of achromatic blots for the third and ninth grades, but not for sixth grade children. Statistically significant clusters of meaning for three age groups of children were found to exist, based on the presence of movement determinants and on a combination of movement, shading and chromatic color. Only for the sixth and ninth grade girls did the semantic scales have a single hierarchy of importance for ordering or differentiating both inkblots and responses of determinants. A communality of connotative meaning between inkblots on the one hand, and responses and determinants commonly associated with the blots on the other, is found only for ninth grade children. Low intergroup agreement was found across grades in mean scale ranking for the inkblots, but high agreement in mean scale ranking of responses and determinants.     

Measuring Generalized Expectancies for Negative Mood Regulation: Initial Scale Development and Implications

A scale measuring generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation (NMR) was developed. The construct was defined as the expectancy that some behavior or cognition will alleviate a negative mood state. Data from five samples of college undergraduates (N = 1,630) were reported. Internal consistency, discriminant validity from social desirability, and temporal stability were demonstrated for a 30-item scale derived from an initial pool of 50 items. Further analyses revealed (a) modest correlations of the 30-item scale with internal-external control, (b) that high scorers on the NMR scale reported few symptoms of depression, and (c) that the NMR scale predicted a different pattern of emotions than the Beck Depression Inventory did. Discussion focused on possible roles for expectancies for negative mood regulation in the coping process and directions for future research on the mood regulation process.     

Mental Health,Belief Deficit Compensation,and Paranormal Beliefs

The present study examined the relationship between religious and nonreligious paranormal beliefs and mental health, as well as the possibility that nonreligious subjects compensate for a lack of identification with traditional religion by increased nonreligious paranormal beliefs. Subjects were 80 undergraduates categorized as religious or nonreligious on the basis of scores on the Traditional Religion subscale of the Paranormal Belief Scale. Religious subjects had significantly higher total paranormal belief scores than nonreligious subjects. Those adopting religious paranormal beliefs were actually somewhat more likely to adopt other nonreligious paranormal beliefs. The failure of nonreligious subjects to compensate fully for this traditional religious belief deficit was reflected in their mental health ratings on the Langer's Mental Health Scale (Langer, 1962). Paranormal beliefs were found to be negatively correlated with reported symptoms of psychopathology, supporting the formulation that paranormal beliefs may serve to ensure psychic integrity by acting as “self-serving cognitive biases.”     

The Effects of Religiosity on Preferences and Expectations for Marital Therapy Among Married Christians

Highly religious couples constitute a substantial portion of marital therapy clients in the U.S. Married Christian individuals ( N = 211) completed a survey of demographics and religiosity (religious values and Christian beliefs). They rated preferences and expectations for one of four marital therapy situations: Christian therapist using Christian practices (e.g., prayer or reference to Scripture), Christian therapist using psychological practices only, non-Christian therapist willing to use Christian practices, and non-Christian therapist using psychological practices only. High religious values and high Christian beliefs predicted ratings of marital therapy situations, where high was defined as one standard deviation above the mean of standardized norm groups. Low to moderate religious values or Christian beliefs did not predict ratings of marital therapy. It was concluded that highly religious couples present a special situation where the marketing, assessment, and practice of marital therapy might differ from therapy with other types of couples.     

Deterring Anger and Anger-Motivated Behaviors

Two experiments were carried out to explore an anger-reducing strategy based on Brehm's emotional intensity theory. According to this theory, anger can be reduced indirectly by interfering with the feeling of anger rather than by dealing directly with the source of anger. One strategy involves providing the angered person with a reason for feeling happy. We predicted that anger intensity would be reduced not only by a large reason for feeling happy, such as a large gift, but also by a small reason, like a tiny gift. A medium-size gift was expected to maintain anger at approximately its instigated level. Both experiments instigated anger by personal insult and then measured the intensity of felt anger and retaliation after either no further treatment, or a small, a moderate, or large irrelevant gift was presented. The results for felt anger and retaliation confirmed our theoretical expectations.     

The Puzzle of Regional Brain Activity in and Anxiety: The Importance of Subtypes and Comorbidity

The literature on brain activity in depression and anxiety is reviewed with an on highlighting discrepancies and inconsistencies. In particular, and posterior asymmetries have been reported for both depression anxiety, but the magnitude and direction of these asymmetries has been We propose that by identifying subtypes of depression and anxiety of these inconsistencies can be explained. In addition, we review suggesting that issues of comorbidity are important to consider in to account for regional brain activity in depression and anxiety.