The effect of serving as a model of self-control on subsequent resistance to deviation in children

The effect of having a child serve as a rule-following model for other children on the model's own subsequent rule-following was investigated in a resistance to deviation situation. First- and second-grade boys (age range 73 to 94 months) who were told they would serve as self-controlling models for others and who actually served in this capacity touched prohibited toys less than did boys who were not told they would serve as models. Boys told they were to serve as models but who were prevented from performing deviated at a level between the models and boys given no responsibility. Having children serve as rule-following models for others is suggested as an effective, non-punitive technique to increase their self-control.     

Attitudinal qualities relating to the strength of the attitude-behavior relationship

A study was conducted to examine the relation between each of several attitudinal qualities and attitude-behavior consistency. Subjects' attitudes toward volunterring to participate in psychological research were assessed. The number of experiments in which each subject volunteered to participate was employed as the measure of behavior. Attitude-behavior consistency was significantly related to (1) the amount of direct experience upon which the subject's attitude was based (specifically, the number of experiments in which the subject had previously participated), (2) the degree of certainty with which the attitude was held, and (3) how well-defined the subject's attitude was, as measured by the width of his latitude of rejection. These three attitudinal qualities were significantly intercorrelated, suggesting that direct experience with an attitude object may produce an attitude that is both better defined and more confidently held than an attitude formed through more indirect means.     

Temporal control of behavior: schedule interactions

In Experiment I the response that terminated the postreinforcement pauses occurring under a fixed-interval 60-second schedule was reinforced, if the pause duration exceeded 30 seconds. The percentage of such pauses, rather than increasing, decreased. There were complex effects on the discriminative control of the pause by the reinforcer terminating the previous fixed interval, depending on whether the fixed interval and the added reinforcer were the same or different. In Experiments II(a) and II(b), each reinforcement initiated an alternative fixed-interval interresponse-time-greater-than-t-sec schedule, the schedule values being systematically varied. When the response following a pause exceeding a given duration was reinforced, fewer such pauses occurred than when they were not reinforced, i.e., on the comparable simple fixed-interval schedule. There was no systematic relationship between mean interrinforcement interval and duration of the postreinforcement pause. The pause duration initiated by reinforcement was directly related to the dependency controlling the shortest pause at that time, regardless of changes in mean interreinforcement interval.     

Stability criteria

Three approaches to the determination of behavioral stability were examined. In the first, a learning curve was fit to acquisition data (from Cumming and Schoenfeld, 1960), and the “experiment” stopped when the data approached sufficiently close to the theoretical asymptote. In the second, the data were analyzed for variability and linear and quadratic trend. In the third, the experiment was stopped when the magnitude of the daily changes in the data fell below a criterion. Accuracy was measured as deviation between the average value of the dependent variable when the experiment was stopped, and the average value over the last 100 sessions. The first approach was most accurate, but at the cost of requiring the most sessions and being the most difficult to apply. Both the second and third approaches provided acceptable criteria with a reasonable cost-accuracy tradeoff. The second approach permits a continuous adjustment of the criteria to accommodate the variability intrinsic in the experimental paradigm. The third, nomothetic, approach also takes into account the decreasing marginal utility of extended training sessions.     

Warmup in avoidance as a function of time since prior training

On avoidance procedures, rats and pigeons typically show warmup effects, characterized by improving performance within sessions and loss of the improvement (“warmup decrement”) between sessions. Between-session losses were examined by varying the time between periods of avoidance training. In one experiment, rats lived fulltime in conditioning chambers while intermission intervals were varied. In a second experiment, the animals lived in home cages between sessions; timeout intervals were introduced at midession, producing recurrence of warmup in the second half-session. In both experiments, the warmup decrements increased substantially as the timeout or intersession intervals were increased from zero to 30 minutes. With intervals of 60 or 120 minutes, the decrements approached or exceeded those obtained with intervals of a day or more. When avoidance was interposed between appetitive sessions, the appetitive responding was disrupted, but this seemed unrelated to the warmup or to the proficiency of avoidance. The warmup in avoidance shares characteristics with transient punishment effects, with the Kamin effect, and with habituation phenomena, but it is premature to assume that they reflect common processes.     

Sleep and memory: reproduction of syntactic structures previously evoked within REM sleep-related reports.

7 subjects, aged 19 to 25 yr., who evoked syntactic verbal material in the report made after awakening during REM sleep, were asked to reproduce it a few minutes later. No big differences had been obsered between the two recalls; all recalled verbal materials, many sentences and kernel-sentences reappeared. These results indicate a good consolidation of the material obtained after awakening during REM sleep.