论经济管理中形式与内容的矛盾

对社会主义经济发展的种种矛盾进行深刻而又全面地研究,这无疑是必要的。本文只对社会主义经济矛盾之一——管理的形式与内容矛盾的某些方面做些分析。形式化的过程及形式化的结果是复杂多样的。形式化的结果可表现为法律行动、行政命令和社会传统(“不成文的法规”),但下面将探讨的则是形式化的两种基本经济方式:第一种     

德谟克利特的伦理学

认识德谟克利特(约生于公元前460年,卒年不详)的伦理观点,并确定这些观点在伦理学史上的地位,遇到了一个困难。我们所见到的这位哲学家的某些伦理学残篇(这些残篇的真实性至今还有争议)存在着明显的矛盾。对这些残篇中那些在公元前5世纪就已成为伦理学上思想争论的主要对象的问题,现在仍然存在着截然不同的论断。一方面,德谟克利特提出了可以说是他的伦理学的自然主义的(甚至是享乐主义的)方面的命题:“……快乐     

Establishing operations

The first two books on behavior analysis (Skinner, 1938; Keller & Schoenfeld, 1950) had chapter-length coverage of motivation. The next generation of texts also had chapters on the topic, but by the late 1960s it was no longer being given much treatment in the behavior-analytic literature. The present failure to deal with the topic leaves a gap in our understanding of operant functional relations. A partial solution is to reintroduce the concept of the establishing operation, defined as an environmental event, operation, or stimulus condition that affects an organism by momentarily altering (a) the reinforcing effectiveness of other events and (b) the frequency of occurrence of that part of the organism's repertoire relevant to those events as consequences. Discriminative and motivative variables can be distinguished as follows: The former are related to the differential availability of an effective form of reinforcement given a particular type of behavior; the latter are related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of environmental events. An important distinction can also be made between unconditioned establishing operations (UEOs), such as food deprivation and painful stimulation, and conditioned establishing operations (CEOs) that depend on the learning history of the organism. One type of CEO is a stimulus that has simply been paired with a UEO and as a result may take on some of the motivative properties of that UEO. The warning stimulus in avoidance procedures is another important type of CEO referred to as reflexive because it establishes its own termination as a form of reinforcement and evokes the behavior that has accomplished such termination. Another CEO is closely related to the concept of conditional conditioned reinforcement and is referred to as a transitive CEO, because it establishes some other stimulus as a form of effective reinforcement and evokes the behavior that has produced that other stimulus. The multiple control of human behavior is very common, and is often quite complex. An understanding of unlearned and learned establishing operations can contribute to our ability to identify and control the various components of such multiple determination.     

The effects of violence on infants and young children: international perspectives on prevention

People become subject to political and social violence when governments fail to give priority to basic health care or education. Attempts to meet foreign obligations also produce severe economic recessions which further impede efforts to improve the general quality of life of disadvantaged populations. Since multiple factors contribute to violence, a multidisciplinary approach is best suited to address the problem. For example, poverty and its associated risks are linked to violence, but living in poverty does not necessarily engender violence. Living in poverty may, however, fuel high rates of child mortality, illiteracy, malnutrition, excessive population growth, street children, and familial disintegration. An integrated action program was developed in Brazil for at-risk individuals and their families based upon the idea of building and reinforcing family ties and intergenerational togetherness. Undernourished infants, street children, the handicapped, women subjected to violence, and neglected senior citizens received special interventions in the program described in the text.     

重建权利和义务的平衡

以往我们过多地强调权利而忽视义务的教育使一些人错误地认为人们只有权利而不必尽义务。第二次世界大战后第二代人的一个代言人曾经提出一种新的、来自责任方面的自由,这种自由是指,人     

《结构》之后的路

该文槪略阐述了库恩本人自1962年《科学革命的结构》发表以来三十年的科学哲学探索历程。探索的中心议题是在肯定理论变化间存在不可通约性的前提下,科学知识是如何进化发展的。库恩强调了科学发展与生物演化之间的相似性,并自认为他是一位后达尔文康德主义者。库恩认为,在知识分化与改变过程的內在基础中,有某种类似康德的自在之物存在,它是永恒的、固定的和稳定的东西,且是不可言说、不可描述的,是处在时空之外的。仅此而论,库恩的这一新主张,是否会在目前科学哲学的平靜湖面上形成一个“一石激起千层浪”的新局面呢?我们将拭目以待。     

欧亚主义者的考验

欧亚主义体现在《走向东方,成就与展望,欧亚主义者的主张》这本论文集中。此书一出,立即引起了关注,震动了思想界。论文集由一篇序言和四位作者的10篇文章组成。     

计算心理学与解释理论

我与我的朋友Z.皮利辛在饭后曾进行过一场辩论。它涉及皮利辛(Pylyshn)所提出的下述论断:“如果没有一个关于心理表征的内容同一性的精确规定的概念,那么认知心理学就是不可能的。”后来我想到,拒绝这一论断的理由直接与D.戴维森对于意义理论和心智哲学的众所周知的影响有联系,因而在皮利辛的允许和宽恕(但愿如此)下,我便决定在本文中主要阐述我反对他的论点的理由。     

为内在实在论辩护

1982年12月,美国哲学学会在东部分会年会上就我的著作《理性,真理和历史》(《Reason,Truth,and History》)举行了一次专题讨论会。H.菲尔德和G.哈曼所写的评论文章已在1982年10月号的《哲学杂志》上发表,而其中只有我所作答复的一个简短摘要。下面是我的整个答复,以前从未全文发表过。