马克思对黑格尔的批判的批判:通过社会劳动的综合

马克思在巴黎时期(1844年)的经济学—哲学手稿的最后一章中研究了《精神现象学》;特别是它的最后一章——绝对知识。马克思采取的方法是把现象的意识阐述从同一哲学的框框中解脱出来,以便阐明隐藏在同一哲学中的、往往已经“远远超过黑格尔观点”的批判要素。他在这里涉及到《全书》第381和第384节,在这两节中完成了从自然哲学向精神哲学的     

海德格尔论痛苦

人们除了一般地从科学上把痛苦理解为一种特殊感觉方式以外,也曾经从哲学上对痛苦加以解释。海德格尔则没有研究科学治疗学对痛苦的说明,也没有研究痛苦对哲学伦理学可能有的贡献。他研究痛苦完全遵循着现象学的方法:他关注的是,在痛苦中,通过痛苦,什么呈现在人前,使什么变得更为清楚明显了。本文目的就是阐述并详细说明这一方法。但事先要提醒一下,海德格尔在哪儿也没有提出过关于痛苦的系统论述。在我们所能得到的他的所有著作中,都找不到他对痛苦的详细分析。他对痛苦的主要陈述凑在一起,也不     

IQ的生物学基础

智力研究的名声,已经被骗子的欺骗行径所败坏,为种族主义所沾污,就象炼丹术士的罐子一样黑。最近的争论集中在:智力是不是天生的?种族之间有没有区别?智力测验能否真正测量智力,或者只是表征一个人接受特定的文化的程度?目前有两个英国     

A behavioral perspective on college teaching

Much of the subject matter learned in college, particularly during the first two years, is taught in relatively large classes with text and lecture as the primary source of the information being learned. If students make effective and prolonged contact with these sources, they can acquire extensive verbal repertoires in many areas of knowledge. Unfortunately there are many other activities that compete for the typical student's study time. Several factors are often cited as variables that will support study behavior in competition with other activities, but the only powerful one available to the teacher is the exam grade, as it is related to the course grade. However, unless exams are clearly related to appropriate study behavior, require through and extensive coverage of the subject matter, occur frequently (preferably no less often than once a week), and are also clearly related to the course grade, even this factor will not generate prolonged and effective study behavior. Effective college teaching is essentially a form of aversive control, but if done properly the aversiveness is quite mild, and such aversive control can be responsible for the development of large and valuable intellectual repertoires.     

Choice and multiple reinforcers

Pigeons chose between equivalent two-component mixed and multiple terminal-link schedules of reinforcement in the concurrent-chains procedure. The pigeons preferred the multiple schedule over the mixed when the components of the compound schedules were differentiated in terms of density of reinforcement, but the pigeons were indifferent when the components were differentiated in terms of number of reinforcers per cycle. Taken together, these results indicate that a local variable, the interval to the first reinforcer, but not a molar variable, the number of reinforcers, was sufficient to differentiate the components and thereby evoke preference.     

Increasing participation and improving the quality of discussions in seventh-grade social studies classes

An experiment was conducted to evaluate procedures to improve classroom discussions in seventh-grade social studies classes. An increased number of students participated in discussions when rules were stated for discussions, students were praised for their contributions, the teacher restated or paraphrased students' contributions aloud or on the blackboard, the teacher planned an outline of discussion questions, student contributions to discussions were recorded and were used to determine part of the students' grades for the class, and discussion grades were publicly posted.The second part of the study focused on procedures designed to improve quality of classroom discussions. Students were taught to participate in discussions by providing reasons for their statements, comparisons between different points, or examples supporting their statements. As each type of contribution was taught, recorded, and counted toward part of the students' classroom grades, each type of contribution increased. Ratings of discussions by outside judges consisting of junior high school teachers, junior high school students, and persons experienced in conducting discussions, indicated that the training increased the overall quality of the discussions. Use of the quality training procedures, however, resulted in decreased levels of overall participation in discussion, a decrease that was reversed by the use of a group contingency for participation. Finally, the discussions after training seemed to be preferred by both the teacher and the students.     

Age and sex differences on the hand test

Investigated age and sex differences on the Hand Test across the life span, while statistically partialing-out the effects of educational level and verbal ability. Subjects were 150 individuals (75 males, 75 females) ranging in age from 20 to 86 years, assigned to one of three age groups on the basis of their chronological age. Participants were administered the Hand Test and the WAIS vocabulary subtest; in addition, years of formal education completed for each subject was obtained. Results indicated that even after statistically adjusting for the effects of education and verbal ability, a number of significant Age. Sex, Age and Sex, as well as Age x Sex interactions were obtained on the Hand Test. It was suggested that, as previous criticisms of projective research with the aged are met, a residue of important personality trends persists.     

Changes in a multiple-response repertoire during response-contingent punishment and response restriction: Sequential relationships

A multiple-response baseline of four activities was established using gerbils as subjects. When one of the baseline responses was punished (Experiment 1) or restricted (Experiments 2 and 3), only the most probable of the alternative baseline responses increased. The response most likely to follow the punished or restricted responses during baseline sessions was also suppressed during subsequent punishment or response-restriction treatment.