逻辑的范围

人们在作出陈述时,可能提供论据以支持它们,也可能不这样。一个被论据支持的陈述是一个论证的结论,而逻辑则提供对论证进行分析的工具。逻辑分析所涉及的是结论和支持它的论据之间的关系。人们思考时,作出推理,这些推理可以转变为论证,而逻辑工具这时就应用于这些得出的论证之上。这样,就可以检验产生这些论证的推理。逻辑研究论证与推理。它的主要目的之一是为区别逻辑上正确的与不正确的论证与推理提供方法。     

排中律与多值逻辑

(在这篇论文里,我把多值逻辑中反对排中律的论据找来,并试图对其进行一番考查。首先,我叙述了反对排中律的论据,然后试图对它的力量作出估价,凡是这个论据显得不充分之处,我就试着提出一种理由予以支持。在我时这个理由所作的批评里,我也努力对提出这一否定的动机——引起争论的那些东西,以及这一否定的份量如何,作了某些证明。) (一)导言传统逻辑的法则基本上是从亚里士多德流传下来的。传统逻辑最基本的法则就是三大思维规律。第一条是同一律,其内容是:“A就是A”或者是“如果某命题是真的,那么它就是真的。”第二条     

Choice and multiple reinforcers

Pigeons chose between equivalent two-component mixed and multiple terminal-link schedules of reinforcement in the concurrent-chains procedure. The pigeons preferred the multiple schedule over the mixed when the components of the compound schedules were differentiated in terms of density of reinforcement, but the pigeons were indifferent when the components were differentiated in terms of number of reinforcers per cycle. Taken together, these results indicate that a local variable, the interval to the first reinforcer, but not a molar variable, the number of reinforcers, was sufficient to differentiate the components and thereby evoke preference.     

Increasing participation and improving the quality of discussions in seventh-grade social studies classes

An experiment was conducted to evaluate procedures to improve classroom discussions in seventh-grade social studies classes. An increased number of students participated in discussions when rules were stated for discussions, students were praised for their contributions, the teacher restated or paraphrased students' contributions aloud or on the blackboard, the teacher planned an outline of discussion questions, student contributions to discussions were recorded and were used to determine part of the students' grades for the class, and discussion grades were publicly posted.The second part of the study focused on procedures designed to improve quality of classroom discussions. Students were taught to participate in discussions by providing reasons for their statements, comparisons between different points, or examples supporting their statements. As each type of contribution was taught, recorded, and counted toward part of the students' classroom grades, each type of contribution increased. Ratings of discussions by outside judges consisting of junior high school teachers, junior high school students, and persons experienced in conducting discussions, indicated that the training increased the overall quality of the discussions. Use of the quality training procedures, however, resulted in decreased levels of overall participation in discussion, a decrease that was reversed by the use of a group contingency for participation. Finally, the discussions after training seemed to be preferred by both the teacher and the students.     

Changes in a multiple-response repertoire during response-contingent punishment and response restriction: Sequential relationships

A multiple-response baseline of four activities was established using gerbils as subjects. When one of the baseline responses was punished (Experiment 1) or restricted (Experiments 2 and 3), only the most probable of the alternative baseline responses increased. The response most likely to follow the punished or restricted responses during baseline sessions was also suppressed during subsequent punishment or response-restriction treatment.     

Standardized classroom management program: Social validation and replication studies in Utah and Oregon

A comprehensive validation study was conducted of the Program for Academic Survival Skills (PASS), a consultant-based, teacher-mediated program for student classroom behavior. The study addressed questions related to: (a) brief consultant training, (b) subsequent teacher training by consultants using PASS manuals, (c) contrasts between PASS experimental teachers and students and equivalent controls on measures of teacher management skills, student classroom behavior, teacher ratings of student problem behaviors, and academic achievement, (d) reported satisfaction of participants, and (e) replication of effects across two separate school sites. Results indicated that in both sites significant effects were noted in favor of the PASS experimental group for (a) teacher approval, (b) student appropriate classroom behavior, and (c) four categories of student inappropriate behavior. Program satisfaction ratings of students, teachers, and consultants were uniformly positive, and continued use of the program was reported a year later. Discussion focused upon issues of cost-effectiveness, differential site effects, and the relationship between appropriate classroom behavior and academic achievement.     

Issues in multivariate assessment of a large-scale behavioral program

Several social and research issues directly affected the development and implementation of multivariate assessment in a large community-based applied research program. Examples are drawn from experiences of the Preparation through Responsive Educational Programs Project for disruptive and skill deficient adolescents in suburban, rural, and urban junior high school settings, focusing on the assessment of academic and social skill development and long-term skill maintenance. The social context altered both project treatment and follow-up plans, requiring assessment of potentially unintended effects and decreasing consistency across sites. Future community acceptance of such programs may depend on the investigators' adaptation to diverse community pressures for program conduct and assessment and the measurement of phenomena that are not always directly observable.     

哲学在马克思主义中的作用

1973年8月,南斯拉夫实践派的哲学家们,在科尔丘拉岛举行第十次夏季哲学问题讨论会。会议的总题目是:资本主义世界和社会主义。在这个标题下,大家也谈到了哲学的作用以及哲学和科学的关系。会上,G.彼得洛维奇就哲学的作用问题作了报告;接着,我也就这个论题发表了讲话。这篇讲话最初发表在1974年的《实践杂志》(第45页-52页)上。