SOME MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLECTUAL ACHIEVEMENT1

Motivations et différences raciales dans la réussite intellectuelle. — Dans les récentes années, un certain nombre de théories de la motivation ont été proposées, qui ne sont pas sans rapport avec le problème des différences raciales dans la réussite intellectuelle aux USA. Le modèle théorique du “désir de réussite” d'Atkinson suggère que pour des noirs qui se trouvent dans des situations scolaires à prédominance blanche, la valeur du succès est forte et faible L'espoir du succès, parce que les normes blanches de réussite sont plus élevées que celles des noirs. La distinction que fait Crandall entre L'origine interne et L'origine externe de la valeur et les normes de réussite, ainsi que les travaux de Crandall et al., sur le rôle de L'approbation de la mère dans L'émergence précoce des conduites de réussite, ont des implications pour L'étude des différences selon la classe sociale et la race dans le développement des motivations intellectuelles. La faible performance des élèves noirs paraît liée à L'inadéquation des renforcements à la maison et à L'école. La privation précoce d'approbation semble entraîner la formation de schèmes, se perpétuant d'eux-mêmes, de surdépendance à L'égard du milieu social en ce qui concerne les récompenses liées à la réussite et L'établissement des normes de réussite. Un autre chercheur, Rotter, a étudié les différences apparaissant entre les groupes et entre les individus, dans la tendance à percevoir les récompenses comme contrôlées de façon interne ou externe. Les noirs, enfants et adultes, ont un sens moindre du contrôle interne. Les conceptions précédemment évoquées peuvent être unifiées et utilisées pour rendre compte de façon substantielle des données dont on dispose sur la réussite des élèves noirs dans des écoles qui pratiquent la ségrégation ou L'intégration raciale.     

The role of physical and conceptual properties in preserving object continuity

Six experiments investigated the nature of the object-file representation supporting object continuity. Participants viewed preview displays consisting of 2 stimuli (either line drawings or words) presented within square frames, followed by a target display consisting of a single stimulus (either a word or a picture) presented within 1 of the frames. The relationship between the target and preview stimuli was manipulated. The first 2 experiments found that participants responded more quickly when the target was identical to the preview stimulus in the same frame (object-specific priming). In Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6, the physical form of the target stimulus (a word or picture in 1 frame) was changed completely from that of either preview stimulus (pictures or words in both frames). Despite this physical change, object-specific priming was observed. It is suggested that object files encode postcategorical information, rather than precise physical information.     

Don’t look! don’t touch! inhibitory control of eye and hand movements

Inhibitory control of eye and hand movements was compared in the stop-signal task. Subjects moved their eyes to the right or left or pressed keys on the right or left in response to visual stimuli. The stimuli were either central (angle brackets pointing left or right) or peripheral (plus signs turning into Xs left or right of fixation), and the task was either pro (respond on the same side as the stimulus) or anti (respond on the opposite side). Occasionally, a stop signal was presented, which instructed subjects to inhibit their responses to the go stimulus. Stop-signal reaction times (SSRTs) were faster overall for eye movements than for hand movements, and they were affected differently by stimulus conditions (central vs. peripheral) and task (pro vs. anti), suggesting that the eyes and hands are inhibited by different processes operating under similar principles (i.e., a race between stop and go processes).     

Age differences in the control of looking behavior: do you know where your eyes have been?

Previous research has shown that during visual search young and old adults' eye movements are equivalently influenced by the appearance of task-irrelevant abrupt onsets. The finding of age-equivalent oculomotor capture is quite surprising in light of the abundant research suggesting that older adults exhibit poorer inhibitory control than young adults on a variety of different tasks. In the present study, we examined the hypothesis that oculomotor capture is age invariant when subjects' awareness of the appearance of task-irrelevant onsets is low, but that older adults will have more difficulty than young adults in inhibiting reflexive eye movements to task-irrelevant onsets when awareness of these objects is high. Our results were consistent with the level-of-awareness hypothesis. Young and old adults showed equivalent patterns of oculomotor capture with equiluminant onsets, but older adults misdirected their eyes to bright onsets more often than young adults did.     

Suppressing where but not what: the effect of saccades on dorsal- and ventral-stream visual processing

Some cognitive processes are suppressed during saccadic eye movements, whereas others are not. In two experiments, we investigated the locus of this interference effect. In one experiment, subjects decided whether pictured items were objects or nonobjects while making saccades of different lengths. Saccade distance had no effect on response time, indicating that saccades do not interfere with object recognition. However, in a second experiment, in which subjects decided whether pictured items faced to the left or to the right, response time increased with saccade distance, indicating that processing was suppressed during the saccade. These results (along with others) suggest that dorsal-stream (where) processes are suppressed during saccades, whereas ventral-stream (what) processes are not. Because the dorsal stream is instrumental in generating saccades, we propose that cognitive saccadic suppression results from dual-task interference within this visual subsystem.     

Personality Dimensions as Common and Broadband-Specific Features for Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders

Several researchers have suggested that the nature of the covariation between internalizing and externalizing disorders may be understood better by examining the associations between temperament or personality and these disorders. The present study examined neuroticism as a potential common feature underlying both internalizing and externalizing disorders and novelty seeking as a potential broad-band specific feature influencing externalizing disorders alone. Participants were 12- to 18-year-old twin pairs (635 monozygotic twin pairs and 691 dizygotic twin pairs; 48 % male and 52 % female) recruited from the Colorado Center for Antisocial Drug Dependence. Genetic and nonshared environmental influences shared in common with neuroticism influenced the covariation among distinct internalizing disorders, the covariation among distinct externalizing disorders, and the covariation between internalizing and externalizing disorders. Genetic influences shared in common with novelty seeking influenced the covariation among externalizing disorders and the covariation between major depressive disorder and externalizing disorders, but not the covariation among internalizing disorders or between anxiety disorders and externalizing disorders. Also, after accounting for genetic and environmental influences shared in common with neuroticism and novelty seeking, there were no significant common genetic or environmental influences among the disorders examined, suggesting that the covariance among the disorders is sufficiently explained by neuroticism and novelty seeking. We conclude that neuroticism is a heritable common feature of both internalizing disorders and externalizing disorders, and that novelty seeking is a heritable broad-band specific factor that distinguishes anxiety disorders from externalizing disorders.