Aspects of psychoanalytic theory: drives, defense, and the pleasure-unpleasure principle

Freud explained certain fundamentally important aspects of mental motivation by assuming the existence of two drives, one libidinal and the other aggressive/destructive. Elements of this theory that seem invalid are identified and discussed, and revisions are proposed that appear to have more validity and greater clinical usefulness.     

Effects of texture and shape on perceived time to passage: Knowing “what” influences judging “when”

In the present study, we examined whether it is easier to judge when an object will pass one’s head if the object’s surface is textured. There are three reasons to suspect that this might be so: First, the additional (local) optic flow may help one judge the rate of expansion and the angular velocity more reliably. Second, local deformations related to the change in angle between the object and the observer could help track the object’s position along its path. Third, more reliable judgments of the object’s shape could help separate global expansion caused by changes in distance from expansion due to changes in the angle between the object and the observer. We can distinguish among these three reasons by comparing performance for textured and uniform spheres and disks. Moving objects were displayed for 0.5–0.7 sec. Subjects had to decide whether the object would pass them before or after a beep that was presented 1 sec after the object started moving. Subjects were not more precise with textured objects. When the disk rotated in order to compensate for the orientation-related contraction that its image would otherwise undergo during its motion, it appeared to arrive later, despite the fact that this strategy increases the global rate of expansion. We argue that this is because the expected deformation of the object’s image during its motion is considered when time to passage is judged. Therefore, the most important role for texture in everyday judgments of time to passage is probably that it helps one judge the object’s shape and thereby estimate how its image will deform as it moves.     

An examination of the relation of individual difference variables to loneliness

This study investigated the relation of five individual difference variables (extroversion, depression, self-esteem, neuroticism, and attitude toward others) to loneliness. The relative contributions of two different models that might explain these relations were examined. One model suggests that individual difference variables are related to loneliness through the mediation of social network variables; that is, individual difference variables may reduce people's motivation and/or ability to build and maintain social relationships, which in turn leads to loneliness. The second model, the cognitive bias model, states that both the individual difference variables and loneliness are influenced by the same intrapersonal, cognitive processes. Some people are prone to negative affect and tend to evaluate themselves and their relationships negatively. The relations of self-esteem, neuroticism, and depression to loneliness were hypothesized to reflect the cognitive bias model, while extroversion and attitudes toward others were hypothesized to be related to loneliness through the mediation of social network variables. Eighty-two female and 42 male adults completed measures of loneliness and the five individual difference variables, as well as an instrument assessing their social networks. The results indicated partial support for both models for each of the individual difference variables. Together, the two models did a good job of explaining the correlations of the individual difference variables and loneliness. The implications of these findings, as well as their relation to previous research, are discussed.     

Psychophysiologic abnormalities in schizophrenia: some implications for therapy

On the basis of several studies, some psychophysiological activation abnormalities in schizophrenia are explained. These abnormalities give rise to at least three therapeutic aims: (1) As some psychophysiological systems may be under- and others overaroused in schizophrenic patients compared to normal controls, therapeutic interventions should approach the systems selectively. (2) The ability to modulate the psychophysiological activation, which is diminished in schizophrenic patients, should be improved. (3) Schizophrenic patients need a more differentiated perception of their own state of activation. These aims contrast somewhat with past therapeutic studies, which tried to change activation for the purpose of tension reduction. It seems advisable to link basic psychophysiological research more closely to the development of therapies.     

Holism a century ago: The elaboration of Duhem's thesis

Duhem first expounds the holistic thesis, according to which an experimental test always involves several hypotheses, in articles dating from the 1890s. Poincaré's analysis of a recent experiment in optics provides the incentive, but Duhem generalizes this analysis and develops a highly original methodological position. He is led to reject inductivism. I will endeavor to show the crucial role history of science comes to play in the development of Duhem's holism.     

Social processing errors among paranoid personalities

The present study tested clinical hypotheses about the social processing attributes of paranoid personalities (PP). Eighteen PPs and 18 normal controls (NC) viewed standardized role plays (Dodge, 1986) in which a provocation occurred but the protagonist's intention varied (i.e., ambiguous, accidental, hostile, or prosocial). Subjects identified the intention behind the action and then chose a response to that action (e.g., ignore what he did). The results indicated that PPs and NCs did not differ on intentioncue detection when the intention was clear, but PPs had a significantly higher rate of misreading ambiguous situations. Furthermore, when intentions were ambiguous, PPs were more likely than NCs to identify them as hostile intentions. Finally, PPs' reactions to the vignettes were different from normal controls' when the perceived intention was either prosocial or accidential. PPs were more likely to respond with anger and less likely to ignore the event, compared to NCs. These data provide initial support for clinical notions about the aberrant social processing of paranoid personalities.     

Homicide and the insanity defense: A comparison of sane and insane murderers

A sample of 50 homicide defendants acquitted by reason of insanity (NGRI) was compared with a group of 50 defendants who were evaluated for insanity and found to be criminally responsible (CR). Significant differences were found between the two groups in terms of prior psychiatric and criminal histories and nature of the homicide (i.e., relationship to victim). The dispositions of those found NGRI were also examined on the above variables.