The Ontogenesis of Language Impairment in Autism: A Neuropsychological Perspective

Autistic Disorder (AD) is a phenotypically heterogeneous condition characterized by impairments in social interaction, communication, and the presence of repetitive behavior and restricted interests. It is a model syndrome to investigate neural interaction and integration at the nexus of language and social cognition. This paper considers the problems of language acquisition in AD from an evolutionary and ontogenetic context. Following a review of normal language development during the formative years of brain development, we examine what is known about infant linguistic and nonlinguistic precursors of language acquisition in AD and examine how anomalies of several processes relate to language abnormalities manifest by the early elementary school years. Population heterogeneity and practical limitations inherent to the study of children currently limit a comprehensive understanding of the significance of specific neurological abnormalities in relation to observed deficits. However, convergent evidence implicates anomalies of a widely distributed neural network, involving superior temporal sulcus, superior temporal gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, insula, inferior frontal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala and cerebellum. These anomalies reflect the cumulative effects of genetic, epigenetic and environmental influences. Neuropsychological studies of language in AD provide an important means to define the phenotypic variation resulting from alterations in neural architecture. By mapping broad relationships between key symptoms, neuropsychological impairment and neural substrate, information derived from these studies enable a level of analysis that bridges the gap between the genome and the syndrome. Further study of children during the critical first 2 years of life using behavioral, electrophysiological, and functional neuroimaging methods is essential.     

A study of kinematic cues and anticipatory performance in tennis using computational manipulation and computer graphics

Computer graphics of digital human models can be used to display human motions as visual stimuli. This study presents our technique for manipulating human motion with a forward kinematics calculation without violating anatomical constraints. A motion modulation of the upper extremity was conducted by proportionally modulating the anatomical joint angular velocity calculated by motion analysis. The effect of this manipulation was examined in a tennis situation--that is, the receiver's performance of predicting ball direction when viewing a digital model of the server's motion derived by modulating the angular velocities of the forearm or that of the elbow during the forward swing. The results showed that the faster the server's forearm pronated, the more the receiver's anticipation of the ball direction tended to the left side of the serve box. In contrast, the faster the server's elbow extended, the more the receiver's anticipation of the ball direction tended to the right. This suggests that tennis players are sensitive to the motion modulation of their opponent's racket-arm.     

Intentional control and biomechanical exploitation in preparatory handwriting

In this study it was investigated how primary school children perform a graphomotor task which required them to simultaneously achieve multiple movement goals. Thirty-four 1st-grade primary school children were asked to produce with an electronic ink pen loop patterns varying in height (3, 6, 9 and 12 mm) on preprinted sheets of paper attached to a digitizer tablet. The task was paced by means of an acoustic signal of either 1, 2 or 3 Hz. The children were instructed to attain both the imposed amplitude and frequency. By focusing on how local parameter errors changed from one movement to the next, exploitation of biomechanics when the children respected the inverse relationship between movement amplitude and frequency was distinguished from deliberate, cognitive control when the children succeeded in overriding the inverse relationship between movement amplitude and frequency. The results show that children, like adults, exploit biomechanics to a considerable extent. Coupling strength between the acoustic pacing signal and the pen-tip movements increased with age, whereas the temporal errors decreased. The study shows that preparatory writers can pursue multiple movement goals simultaneously at lower speeds but at higher speeds their capacity to do so is reduced.     

The efficacy of free‐recall,cognitive load,and closed‐ended questions when children are asked to falsely testify about a crime

The current study evaluated the benefits of free‐recall, cognitive load, and closed‐ended questions on children's (ages 6 to 11; N = 147) true and false eyewitness disclosures. Children witnessed an experimenter find a stranger's wallet and were then asked to make a false denial, false accusation, true denial, or true accusation regarding an alleged theft. Overall, the free‐recall question resulted in longer, more forthcoming and more detailed disclosures from older children and those who made a truthful accusation; however, children under the age of 9 and lie‐tellers mostly relied on the closed‐ended questions to discuss the theft. Although the cognitive load questions resulted in newly recalled information, there were no significant narrative differences between true and false statements on these questions. These findings suggest that forensic professionals should consider a child's developmental level, statement veracity, and disclosure‐type (denial vs. accusation) when examining the efficacy of these commonly used questioning strategies.     

Preliminary remarks on type of task and delay in children's prospective memory

This study investigated the extent to which the type of task influences children's prospective memory performance. 80 subjects, aged 7 to 11 yr. participated in an experiment in which the type of task (time-based vs event-based) and the retention interval (5 min. vs 10 min.) varied. The prospective memory task was embedded in a principal task lasting about 15 min. and required subjects perform an action at a given time or in response to a specific cue. Analysis indicated that the delay was associated with prospective memory performance only on a time-based task in which the intention has to be performed after 10 min. but not age. Analysis indicated also that time monitoring was associated with shorter latency between the target time and the execution of the intention on the time-based task. Implications were discussed.     

Classification of loneliness using the T‐ILS: Is it as simple as it seems?

Student well‐being is a growing issue in higher education, and assessment of the prevalence of conditions as loneliness is therefore important. In higher education and population surveys the Three‐Item Loneliness Scale (T‐ILS) is used increasingly. The T‐ILS is attractive for large multi‐subject surveys, as it consists of only three items (derived from the UCLA Loneliness Scale). Several ways of classifying persons as lonely based on T‐ILS scores exist: dichotomous and trichotomous classification schemes and use of sum scores with rising levels indicating more loneliness. The question remains whether T‐ILS scores are comparable across the different population groups where they are used or across groups of students in the higher education system. The aim was to investigate whether the T‐ILS suffers from differential item functioning (DIF) that might change the loneliness classification among higher education students, using a large sample just admitted to 22 different academy profession degree programs in Denmark (N = 3,757). DIF was tested relative to degree program, age groups and gender. The framework of graphical loglinear Rasch models was applied, as this allows for adjustment of sum scores for uniform DIF, and thus for assessment of whether DIF might change the classification. Two items showed DIF relative to degree program and gender, and adjusting for this DIF changed the classification for some subgroups. The consequences were negligible when using a dichotomous classification and larger when using a trichotomous classification. Therefore, trichotomous classification should be used with caution unless suitable adjustments for DIF are done prior to classification.     

Shaping of Reach-to-Grasp Kinematics by Intentions: A Meta-Analysis

When we reach to grasp something, we need to take into account both the properties of the object we are grasping and the intention we have in mind. Previous research has found these constraints to be visible in the reach-to-grasp kinematics, but there is no consensus on which kinematic parameters are the most sensitive. To examine this, a systematic literature search and meta-analyses were performed. The search identified studies assessing how changes in either an object property or a prior intention affect reach-to-grasp kinematics in healthy participants. Hereafter, meta-analyses were conducted using a restricted maximum likelihood random effect model. The meta-analyses showed that changes in both object properties and prior intentions affected reach-to-grasp kinematics. Based on these results, the authors argue for a tripartition of the reach-to-grasp movement in which the accelerating part of the reach is primarily associated with transporting the hand to the object (i.e., extrinsic object properties), the decelerating part of the reach is used as a preparation for object manipulation (i.e., prepare the grasp or the subsequent action), and the grasp is associated with manipulating the object's intrinsic properties, especially object size.     

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Co-Morbid with Hearing Impairment: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT-I) for insomnia on patients with insomnia co-morbid with hearing impairment. A randomized controlled design was used with a 3-month follow-up. Thirty-two patients with insomnia co-morbid with hearing impairment were randomized to either CBT-I or a waitlist condition (WLC). The primary outcome was insomnia severity. Secondary outcomes were sleep diary parameters, dysfunction, anxiety, and depression. Compared to WLC, CBT-I resulted in lower insomnia severity at post-treatment and at follow-up (d = 1.18–1.56). Relative to WLC, CBT-I also led, at both assessment points, to reduced total wake time (d = 1.39) and increased sleep restoration (d = 1.03–1.07) and sleep quality (d = 0.91–1.16). Both groups increased their total sleep time, but no significant group difference emerged. Compared to WLC, CBT-I resulted in higher function (d = 0.81–0.96) and lower anxiety (d = 1.29–1.30) at both assessment points. Neither CBT-I nor WLC led to improvement on depression. Based on the Insomnia Severity Index, more CBT-I (53–77%) than WLC participants (0–7%) were treatment responders. Also, more CBT-I (24%) than WLC participants (0%) remitted. In patients with insomnia co-morbid with hearing impairment, CBT-I was effective in decreasing insomnia severity, subjective sleep parameters, dysfunction, and anxiety. These findings are in line with previous results on the effects of CBT-I in other medical conditions.