Expectancy of success on sex-linked tasks

College subjects undertook nine cognitive tasks with different perceived sex linkages, stating their expectancy of success prior to each task and attributing causality for their perceived performance following each task. As hypothesized, two components were present in the overall sex difference in expectancy of success, even when differences in actual task performance were statistically controlled. One component was attributable to a general tendency of females to state lower expectancies; the other was a function of the accord between the perceived sex linkage of the task and the subject's sex. The attribution data suggest that females tend to be more external for success and more internal for failure than males.The research reported here was partially supported by Grant #10692 from the Research Foundation of the City University of New York. The assistance of Bruce Eisman in testing subjects and of Rudy Lorber in data analysis is gratefully acknowledged.     

Crowding and stress: 2. A personal space approach

The concept of ‘personal space’ has sometimes been invoked in attempts to explain stressful effects of crowding; but the literature on personal space reveals divergent findings according to the definitions and methods of measurement used. Redefinitions are proposed whereby personal space preferences can be seen as mediating our reactions to the spatial proximity of others, according to a dynamic model which considers both task-related needs for physical space and privacy needs, together with concern over social norms and attributions. It is argued that perceived illegitimate invasion of the personal space one claims is likely to give rise to stress effects if coping responses fail. Thus crowding is likely to be stressful in many natural contexts where personal space is intruded upon frequently, especially when attributions of intentional thwarting are made. Further theoretical advances in this area must rest upon more precise specification of processes by which social relationships, situational variables, and subjective motivational, perceptual, and evaluative factors jointly determine an agent’s personal space claims and associated reactions to spatial invasion.