人的高级神经活动的年龄特点

生理学中已经积累了不少事实材料,可以说明人脑活动的年龄发育和退化的特征。但是,对某些时期,例如,对出生到7岁以及50岁之后的时期,进行了系统地研究,而对其它年龄期,只是作了些个别的研究工作。对高级神经活动生理学主要问题的研究也不平衡;对儿童第一信号系统水平上的条件反射活动形成的规律,研究得很充分,在这方面进行研究的有等人;对第二信号系统的发育和机能活动机制的研究却比较少,对确定儿童类型特点以及在理论和实践上都很重要的许多其它问题,研究得也不充分。因此,本文中材料的安排也相应地不平衡。     

苏联教育科学院普通和教育心理学研究所科学活动的总结和展望

苏联教育科学院普通和教育心理学研究所是我国最早的心理学研究机构之一。1982年是这个研究所成立七十周年。关于它的历史,它在发展俄国和苏联心理科学中的作用,这个所的著名科学家在这门科学中所做的贡献,已有许多著作阐述。本文专门谈这个研究所的科学活动的一般总结和展望(文中所用材料是由这个所的主要研究人员提供的)。     

起源及综合

在这篇文章中,我们讨论比较心理学史的一些情况,并阐述比较心理学及社会生物学之间一个特殊的接触点,它可作为把这两门以及有关学科整合起来的焦点。我们探索的思路是     

Choice, changeover, and travel: A quantitative model

Six pigeons were trained on concurrent variable-interval schedules in which responding on fixed-interval schedules was required to give access to the alternate schedule. Responding on the concurrent schedules was not allowed, after changing over had commenced, until the changeover schedule had been completed. In Parts 1 to 3 of the experiment, the changeover fixed-interval schedules were equal and were 0 s, 10 s, and 20 s, respectively. In each part, the relative frequency of reinforcement obtained on the concurrent schedules was varied over at least five conditions. In Part 4, the concurrent schedules were equal, and one changeover fixed-interval schedule was twice the other. Under these conditions, the absolute sizes of the changeover schedules were varied. Increasing the changeover requirement from 0 s to 10 s (Parts 1 and 2) resulted in increases in the sensitivity of behavior allocation to reinforcers obtained, but no further increase was obtained when the changeover schedules were increased to 20 s (Part 3). In Part 4, performance was biased towards the concurrent schedule that took less time to enter. These results are consistent with a subtractive punishment model of travel in which the degree of punishment is measured by the number of reinforcers apparently lost from a schedule when the subject changes to that schedule. Absolute times spent on the main keys could be accurately described by a previous model of changeover performance.     

Concurrent schedules: Effects of time- and response-allocation constraints

Five pigeons were trained on concurrent variable-interval schedules arranged on two keys. In Part 1 of the experiment, the subjects responded under no constraints, and the ratios of reinforcers obtainable were varied over five levels. In Part 2, the conditions of the experiment were changed such that the time spent responding on the left key before a subsequent changeover to the right key determined the minimum time that must be spent responding on the right key before a changeover to the left key could occur. When the left key provided a higher reinforcer rate than the right key, this procedure ensured that the time allocated to the two keys was approximately equal. The data showed that such a time-allocation constraint only marginally constrained response allocation. In Part 3, the numbers of responses emitted on the left key before a changeover to the right key determined the minimum number of responses that had to be emitted on the right key before a changeover to the left key could occur. This response constraint completely constrained time allocation. These data are consistent with the view that response allocation is a fundamental process (and time allocation a derivative process), or that response and time allocation are independently controlled, in concurrent-schedule performance.     

Analyzing the reinforcement process at the human level: Can application and behavioristic interpretation replace laboratory research?

Critics have questioned the value of human operant conditioning experiments in the study of fundamental processes of reinforcement. Contradictory results from human and animal experiments have been attributed to the complex social and verbal history of the human subject. On these grounds, it has been contended that procedures that mimic those conventionally used with animal subjects represent a "poor analytic preparation" for the explication of reinforcement principles. In defending the use of conventional operant methods for human research, we make three points: (a) Historical variables play a critical role in research on processes of reinforcement, regardless of whether the subjects are humans or animals. (b) Techniques are available for detecting, analyzing, and counteracting such historical and extra-experimental influences; these include long-term observations, steady state designs, and, when variables are not amenable to direct control (e.g., age, gender, species), selection of subjects with common characteristics. (c) Other forms of evidence that might be used to validate conditioning principles-applied behavior analysis and behavioristic interpretation-have inherent limitations and cannot substitute for experimental analysis. We conclude that human operant conditioning experiments are essential for the analysis of the reinforcement process at the human level, but caution that their value depends on the extent to which the traditional methods of the experimental analysis of behavior are properly applied.     

语言消亡的原因和环境

绪论大家知道,世界上存在或者说存在过5000多种语言,但其中数百种已不再有任何个人或者语言社团使用。这些语言中的某些语言,诸如拉丁语,古希腊语和斯拉冯语等,维持着奄奄一息的生命,犹如供人瞻仰的古迹,今天尚能发挥的作用极为微弱,仅限于专业研究;其余大多数语言只对一小群语言学家、历史学家和把目光转向过去的其他专家有用。许多语言已了无生     

学习低能学生的教育干预与教学方法

对学习低能学生教育干预的目标是缩小他们能力与成绩之间的差距。过去和现在的绝大多数教育计划都是在不断探寻这一目标,为阅读、算术和语言艺术等基本技能提供矫治教学措施。学习低能学生的教师发现讲授基本技能是特殊教育教师最为重要的专业能力之一。另外,有些教师还提出,学习中最为重要的事情是发展基本技能教学。阅读和数学教学固然应分配最好的教学时间,但是,语言艺术也是课程中的一重要部分。“学习低能者全国     

儿童的游戏行为和认知风格

人们越来越清楚地意识到,游戏是早期儿童认知发展的基本源泉.皮亚杰认为,游游经验能帮助儿童对与物体和人有关的空间、因果关系及时间等信息进行同化.维果茨基把游戏作为促进儿童的抽象思维发展的一个重要因素.在儿童的游戏行为中经常提到的认知活动包括两个方面:(1)建构物质世界的能力;(2)理解不同的社公性观点的能力.