Leadership and substitutes for leadership among professional and nonprofessional workers.

In this article, the authors discuss their research on similarities and differences between professionals and nonprofessionals in their responses to managerial leadership behaviors and substitutes for leadership. Their study sample comprised workers at many organizational levels in several hospital and contract research organizations in the Southwest, and they used a multidimensional measure of professionalism to create subsamples of professionals and nonprofessionals. The authors used questionnaire data to test hypotheses regarding instrumental and supportive leadership behaviors and their substitutes. They found that role clarification and support from leaders were important predictors of worker's job satisfaction and organizational commitment for both subsamples, and that formal rules and procedures were an important supplement for instrumental leadership behaviors. Professionals differed from nonprofessionals in that intrinsically satisfying work tasks and importance place on organizational rewards were strong substitutes for leaders' support. The authors conclude that worker professionalism is an important moderator variable for research on leadership and substitutes for leadership.     

Perceived intimacy of expressed emotion

Research on norms for emotional expression and self-disclosure provided the basis for two hypotheses concerning the perceived intimacy of emotional self-disclosure. The first hypothesis was that the perceived intimacy of negative emotional disclosure would be greater than that of positive emotional disclosure; the second was that disclosures of more intense emotional states would be perceived as more intimate than disclosures of less intense emotional states for both negative and positive disclosures. Both hypotheses received support when male students in Canada rated the perceived intimacy of self-disclosures that were equated for topic and that covered a comprehensive sample of emotions and a range of emotional intensities. The effects were observed across all the topics of disclosure examined.     

Hearing your voice through bone and air: Implications for explanations of stuttering behavior from studies of normal speakers

Cherry and Sayers (1956) reported that stutterers have problems dealing with sound fed back to the ears through bone. Their experimental support for this claim is reexamined. It is shown that their technique does not produce the same bone-conducted feedback as produced by the speaker while speaking. Their results are reinterpreted as showing that stutterers have problems when speaking in the presence of low frequency sound because of its masking properties, rather than because the sound originates in bone-conducted feedback.     

Preferences for scale structure in melodic sequences

Most Western music is tonal; that is, pitch organization can largely be described in terms of scales or keys. A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the role played by scale in perceiving notes and melodies. The present article points out a potentially important distinction between scale structure (the set permitted pitch intervals between notes) and mode (the assignment of a special salience or centrality to particular notes within the scale structure). Four experiments are described that investigated the judgment of adult Western listeners for melodies that approximated to scale structure in differing degrees but that were random in other respects. We found that musicians and nonmusicians gave higher ratings of preference and adjudged musicality to melodies containing increased numbers of consecutive notes conforming to scale structure. A significant exception to this rule was the least scalar type of sequence, which received ratings as high as the fully scalar sequences. This exception occurred because subjects identified scale structure not only in groups of contiguous notes but also in groups of discontiguous notes that formed a coherent "stream" as long as the number of notes intervening corresponded to a standard temporal grouping, or meter, such as is commonly found in Western music.     

Daily and major life events: A test of an integrative model of psychosocial stress

The hypothesis that negative daily events mediate the relationship between major negative events and psychological symptomatology was tested using a three-wave, three-variable panel design. Measures of major and daily life events and psychological symptomatology were administered to 58 older adolescents at three time points during the transition from high school to college. The results indicated that the pathways from major life events to daily events and from daily events to psychological symptomatology were significant at each of the time points, but that the direct pathways from major events to psychological symptomatology were not significant at any time point. Thus, the hypothesis was fully supported. The findings are discussed in light of their implications for an integrative theory of the process by which major and daily events have an effect on psychological symptomatology.     

Empirically based assessment of the behavioral/emotional problems of 2- and 3- year-old children

The aim was to determine whether ratings of 2- and 3-year-olds could yield more differentiation among their behavioral/emotional problems than the internalizing-externalizing dichotomy found in previous studies. The 99-item Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 2–3 (CBCL/2–3) was designed to extend previously developed empirically based assessment procedures to 2-and 3-year-olds. Factor analyses of the CBCL/2–3 completed by parents of 398 2- and 3-year-olds yielded six syndromes having at least eight items loading 30 and designated as Social Withdrawal, Depressed, Sleep Problems, Somatic Problems, Aggressive, and Destructive. Second-order analyses showed that the first two were related to a broad-band internalizing grouping, whereas the last two were related to a broad-band externalizing grouping. Scales for the six syndromes, two broad-band groupings, and total problem score were constructed from scores obtained by 273 children in a general population sample. Mean test-retest reliability r was 87, 1-year stability r was 69, 1-year predictive r with CBCL/4–16 scales at age 4 was 63, 2-year predictive r was 55, and 3-year predictive r was 49. Children referred for mental health services scored significantly higher than nonreferred children on all scales. A lack of significant r's with the Minnesota Child Development Inventory, Bayley, and McCarthy indicate that the CBCL/2–3 taps behavioral/emotional problems independently of the developmental variance tapped by these measures.This research was supported by March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation Grants 12–88 and 12–186, a Faculty Scholars Award from the W.T. Grant Foundation, and a Biomedical Research Support Grant from the University of Vermont College of Medicine.     

Ego-involvement leads to positive self-schema activation and to a positivity bias in information processing

Study 1 examined the hypothesis that ego-involvement leads to positive self-schema activation. Ego-involvement was induced by having experimental subjects anticipate a difficult test of intelligence. Noninvolved control subjects did not anticipate the test. All subjects completed a depth-of-processing task, following which incidental recall was assessed. Ego-involved relative to noninvolved subjects tended to recall a greater number of positive and fewer negative words at both the self-referent and semantic processing levels. Study 2 was conducted to address further the self-schema hypothesis and to address the hypothesis suggested by the results of Study 1 that ego-involvement leads to a positivity bias in information processing. The design of Study 2 was similar to that of Study 1. Results revealed that the self-favorability of negative words recalled at the self-referent level was greater for ego-involved than for noninvolved subjects, suggesting positive self-schema activation. In addition, ego-involved subjects recalled a greater number of positive words at the semantic level, suggesting a positivity bias in information processing.Study 2 was conducted by Andrew Howell in partial fulfillment of the requirements of a Master of Arts degree at Concordia University, under the supervision of Michael Conway. The authors thank Karin Stiefenhofer for her work on the project. The research was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Fonds pour la Formation de Chercheurs et l'Aide à la Recherche du Québec grants to Michael Conway.     

Replication of empirically derived syndromes as a basis for taxonomy of child/adolescent psychopathology

To advance the empirical identification of child/adolescent syndromes, principal components analyses were performed on four sets of parents' ratings of 8,194 6- to 16-year-olds referred to American and Dutch mental health services. The following syndromes replicated well for both sexes at ages 6-16: Aggressive, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Delinquent, Somatic Complaints, and Withdrawn. For both age ranges, a syndrome designated as Socially Inept replicated well among boys, and one designated as Mean replicated well among girls. Evidence was also found for a Schizoid syndrome in all sex/age groups and a Sex Problems syndrome among girls at ages 6-11. Syndrome scores discriminated well between nationwide normative and clinical samples. The replicated syndromes contribute to the empirical basis for a taxonomy of the kinds of disorders commonly seen between the ages of 6 and 16.     

Plucks and bows are not categorically perceived

Letter-like targets (a circle and a square) were presented in one of two fixed and cued visual field locations and were shown alone, flanked by a noise stimulus on the peripheral side (side of target farthest from fixation), on the central side, or on both sides simultaneously. The adjacent target and noise stimulus borders had similar featural properties (both curved or both straight lines) or dissimilar properties (one being a curved line and one a straight line). Each of 10 subjects made a go, no-go response only when his or her designated target appeared in a display. The results showed: (1) single targets were discriminated more accurately and more rapidly than were targets shown simultaneously with noise stimuli, (2) targets having dissimilar border relationships with noise items were discriminated more accurately than were targets having similar border relationships, (3) targets in central-noise displays were discriminated more accurately and rapidly than were targets in peripheral-noise displays, and (4) there was no interaction between border relationships and noise position. The principal result relating to target-noise border featural relationship was consistent with predictions derived from models which place the locus of noise effects at the stage of stimulus feature extraction. Aspects of the results were, however, seen to be consistent with both feature extraction and response competition conceptualizations.