Testing a word is not a test of word learning

Although vocabulary acquisition requires children learn names for multiple things, many investigations of word learning mechanisms teach children the name for only one of the objects presented. This is problematic because it is unclear whether children's performance reflects recall of the correct name–object association or simply selection of the only object that was singled out by being the only object named. Children introduced to one novel name may perform at ceiling as they are not required to discriminate on the basis of the name per se, and appear to rapidly learn words following minimal exposure to a single word. We introduced children to four novel objects. For half the children, only one of the objects was named and for the other children, all four objects were named. Only children introduced to one word reliably selected the target object at test. This demonstration highlights the over-simplicity of one-word learning paradigms and the need for a shift in word learning paradigms where more than one word is taught to ensure children disambiguate objects on the basis of their names rather than their degree of salience.     

It's Taking Shape: Shared Object Features Influence Novel Noun Generalizations

Children's early noun vocabularies are dominated by names for shape‐based categories. However, along with shape, material and colour are also important features of many early categories. In the current study, we investigate how the number of shared features among objects influences children's novel noun generalizations, explanations for these generalizations and spontaneous speech. Preschool children and adults were presented with test objects that shared only one feature (e.g. shape) or that shared two features (e.g. material and colour). After each trial, participants were asked, ‘how did you know that was your [novel name]?’ Overall, participants generalized novel names on the basis of shape more when objects shared shape and a second feature with the exemplar. All participants provided shape‐based explanations of their choices, but explanations were increasingly more abstract across development. Finally, children's spontaneous speech was dominated by references to the objects' shape, and this did not change across development or number of shared features. Overall, these data demonstrate that the shape bias is enhanced when objects share shape and a second feature but weakened for 3‐year‐old children when objects share two non‐shape features. These findings have implications for our understanding of how children learn names for objects that belong to multiple categories. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Imagery and Motor Processes — When Are They Connected? The Mental Rotation of Body Parts in Development

Motor influences on the mental transformation of body parts have been observed in both children and adults. Previous findings indicated that these influences were more pronounced in children than in adults, suggesting a stronger link between motor processes and imagery in children. The present series of two experiments casts doubt on the general validity of such an interpretation. Kindergartners' (aged 5–6 years), first graders' (aged 7 years), and adults' performance in the mental rotation of pictures of body parts was monitored for influences of internal representations of motor constraints (motor effect). In both experiments, evidence for mental rotation was obtained for each group. Unexpectedly, kindergarten boys made significantly more errors than kindergarten girls. A motor effect was only found in the second experiment, where it was least pronounced in the youngest age group. Our results suggest that mental transformations of body parts do not necessarily involve motor processes and that embodiment may become stronger with development rather than weaker with certain tasks.     

Analyzing behavior implied by EWA learning: An emphasis on distinguishing reinforcement from belief learning

An important issue in the field of learning is to what extent one can distinguish between behavior resulting from either belief or reinforcement learning. Previous research suggests that it is difficult or even impossible to distinguish belief from reinforcement learning: belief and reinforcement models often fit the empirical data equally well. However, previous research has been confined to specific games in specific settings. In the present study we derive predictions for behavior in games using the EWA learning model (e.g., Camerer & Ho, 1999), a model that includes belief learning and a specific type of reinforcement learning as special cases. We conclude that belief and reinforcement learning can be distinguished, even in 2×2 games. Maximum differentiation in behavior resulting from either belief or reinforcement learning is obtained in games with pure Nash equilibria with negative payoffs and at least one other strategy combination with only positive payoffs. Our results help researchers to identify games in which belief and reinforcement learning can be discerned easily.     

Telefonische Nachuntersuchungen bei postpartaler Depression

Interviews over the telephone with mothers with and without postnatal depressive symptoms are reported. Advantages and disadvantages of interviews by telephone are discussed. Especially in cases of long distance to the home of a client, telephone interviews have economic and logistic advantages. If there are special questions (e.g. depression), telephone interviews seem to be widely accepted by the people.     

Theory of Mind and the Video Deficit Effect: Video Presentation Impairs Children’s Encoding and Understanding of False Belief

The video deficit effect (VDE) has been demonstrated in several studies on word learning, self-recognition, and imitation: Younger children (up to 3 years old) solved tasks more easily in a direct interaction with an examiner than when instructed by video (Anderson & Pempek, 2005). Older children might also be susceptible to a VDE, especially with more complex tasks; however, evidence is sparse. Furthermore, to what extent preschoolers’ understanding of others’ mental states (theory of mind) is impaired by video presentations has not been tested. We tested 174 children of 4 and 5 years of age in a traditional change of location task for false belief understanding (cf. Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985). Children were presented with the original story, enacted by adult actors, in either a video or a live demonstration. Children watched the events in 2 live conditions, either through a 1-way mirror or directly. Our results indicate a significant VDE for 4- and 5-year-old children regarding the encoding and solution of the false belief task, respectively.     

Die Therapeutenvariable

Background

The objective of this study was to investigate the therapeutic attitude as a self-contained dimension of the therapeutic process.

Patients and methods

The psychotherapists’ beliefs and attitudes in therapeutic matters are measured according to the Therapeutic Attitude Scales (TASC) of the Therapeutic Attitude Questionnaire (ThAt) and were applied to investigate the therapist variable. The investigation concentrated on the therapist’s belief in the curative value of a number of ingredients of psychotherapy, on the therapist’s individual style of conducting psychotherapy and on basic assumptions about the nature of psychotherapy and the nature of the human mind. A total of 451 psychotherapists (81 psychodynamic psychotherapists, 208 psychoanalytic psychotherapists and 162 behaviour therapists) were investigated.

Results

There were highly significant differences between the three groups of therapists, a finding which is in line with the basic theory. Adaptation and insight of the assumed curative factors as well as supportiveness and neutrality of the technique factors, differentiate the groups highly significantly. The multivariate analysis underlines the importance of adaptation and insight to differentiate between all groups.

Conclusion

The results by and large confirm the general assumptions held on the differences between the groups. Thus the ThAt appears to be a valid instrument to grasp more subtle features of the therapist variable that may influence the outcome of psychotherapy.     

Die Vollstreckungsvorschriften der §§ 35, 36 BtmG und Probleme in der Praxis bei deren Anwendung

In Germany the department of public prosecution has also to organize the enforcement of the prison sentences. For drug addicted offenders there is an option of therapy instead of custody, defined by sections 35, 36 BtmG (Narcotics Law). The author shows the prospects of this law and the problems in daily routine, based on his experience as a prosecutor in Berlin.