Exploring the Generalization Process from Past Behavior to Predicting Future Behavior

Substantial evidence in social psychology documents that traits predict behavior. Research in behavioral economics establishes prior behavioral information—the actual behavior of another person in the past—influences future decision making, suggestive of the role of traits in guiding future behavior, but agnostic to the specific psychological mechanism. Yet the entire generalization process from past behavior to predicting future behavior has not been fully explored. Additionally, previous paradigms do not adequately dissociate prediction from explanation, and provide participants with trait information, or rely on participants to generate the appropriate trait. Here, we combine literature and experimental approaches in social psychology and behavioral economics to explore the generalization process from prior behavior that guides future decisions. Across three studies utilizing consequential economic game paradigms and online questionnaires, an initial group of participants (employees) played a time estimation game and a charity donations game before a second group of participants (employers) viewed the behavior of the first group, then decided whether to invest in employees in a trust game and rock guessing game. Although participants infer trait warmth and competence from the behavioral information in the first two games, estimates of normative behavior predicted investment decisions on the warmth‐relevant games better than trait inferences. These results dissociate generalizations guided by warmth and competence behavioral information, and question the extent to which traits always serve as heuristics to predict behavior. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Likability and Similarity as Potential Sources of Predictor-Related Criterion Bias in Validation Research

Previous research on the effects of bias in criterion-related validation research has typically involved the use of statistical corrections for halo, leniency, and/or central tendency. We present arguments that likability and similarity of raters to ratees may constitute a form of predictor-related criterion bias. One cannot investigate this form of bias without clear understanding of method, predictor, and criterion constructs and careful direct measurement of each. Measurement and theorizing of method constructs is rarely, if ever, undertaken in criterion-related validation work. The results of a criterion-related validation of the use of quantitative and verbal ability and interview and role-play simulations to predict the performance of 372 federal investigative agents are reported. Using the all-Y LISREL model (Williams & Anderson, 1994), we found that likability and similarity factors were related to interview and role play measures. However, none of these potential "biases" affected both predictor and criterion constructs, hence there was no effect on the estimates of the relationships between the predictors and criteria. Limitations with respect to the generalizability of these results to criterion-related research in which performance data are not as carefully collected as well as advantages and disadvantages of more traditional regression and correlational analyses are discussed.     

Do Unilateral Right and Left Face Contractions Induce Positive and Negative Emotions? A Further Test of Schiff and Lamon's (1989) Hypothesis

Schiff and Lamon (1989) proposed that unilateral face contractions induce positive or negative changes in emotion depending on the side of contraction; support for this proposal, however, has been mixed. In a new test, 40 right-handed and 38 left-handed men performed four alternating face contractions (LRLR or RLRL) and, after each one, completed a different version of the Depression Adjective Checklist (Lubin, 1994). A repeated-measures ANCOVA failed to reveal any significant effect of side of face contraction or handedness on direction of emotion change. Instead, regardless of side of contraction, the subjects' negative emotional state increased significantly across the four contractions with the degree of change being significantly related to the subjects' reported level of difficulty in holding the contraction irrespective of whether the more difficult side was the left or the right.     

Who Is Referred to Mental Health Services in the Juvenile Justice System?

We describe the mental health referral rate among youth in a correction facility, examine how sociodemographic and criminal history characteristics relate to referral, and explore how these variables and diagnostic class differ by referral source. Data were abstracted from case records. The referral rate was low (6%). Non-Latino youth, repeat offenders, and violent offenders were more likely to be referred compared to all detained youth. Referral source also varied by violent offense history and diagnosis type. Future studies examining access to mental health services should take into account a detained youth's sociodemographic, criminal history, and clinical characteristics.     

Teaching social‐learning procedures to paraprofessionals working with individuals with severe mental illness in a maximum‐security forensic hospital

This study describes an integrated technical method for teaching learning‐based interventions to paraprofessionals working in a maximum‐security psychiatric facility as a social‐learning program was implemented. This training approach combines brief didactic instruction with live demonstration and guided practice in specific procedures. Comparisons between baseline and post‐training functioning of staff were made using ongoing direct observational assessment data. Results revealed that following training and program implementation staff were much more active overall, interacted with clients far more often, and engaged in much lower rates of job‐irrelevant activity. Moreover, following training direct observational data of the patterns of staff–client interactions showed that staff were much more likely to demonstrate interactions reflective of learning‐based interventions than at baseline. These results have important implications for clinicians and administrators attempting to implement behavioral rehabilitation programs. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ethnicity,gender, and evaluations of aggression

In order to investigate some of the ways in which ethnicity and gender influence interpretations of aggression, 363 Anglo and Hispanic university students responded to a questionnaire soliciting their evaluations of aggression in three situations. Consistent with previous research and with the stereotype of machismo, Hispanics, particularly Hispanic males, were more likely to endorse some aggressive behaviors than Anglos. However, the same pattern of gender influences emerged for both ethnic groups. As predicted, males were more aggressive and more supportive of fighting back and punishing an aggressor than females, whereas females were more likely to show self-control about aggression and to endorse restraint. Respondents, particularly males, said that they would behave more aggressively toward a male, and they encouraged a male to behave more aggressively. These results are consistent with the social constructionist view that performance and evaluations of aggression are largely influenced by cultural factors. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The impact of perceived experience on likelihood judgments for self and others: an experimental approach

This study examines the effect of an experimental manipulation of perceived experience on self and others' likelihood ratings for a set of relatively commonplace misfortunes. Participants were randomly assigned to a condition in which they were asked whether they had ever experienced the events (designed to induce higher perceived experience) or whether they had done so frequently, typically, etc. (designed to induce lower perceived experience). The manipulation led to increases in ratings of both perceived self‐likelihood and others' likelihood, in ease of imagining the outcome and recall of a past occurrence, and to decreases in perceived control over the events in the higher perceived experience condition. The increases in ease of imagining mediated the impact of manipulated experience on comparative likelihood whereas the decreases in perceived control did not. There was little evidence that event controllability moderated the impact of experience on comparative likelihood for these events. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Acquiring Explicit Grammatical Knowledge Using the Spanish Verbs <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ser</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Estar</Emphasis> as Examples

The role of explicit and implicit acquisition of grammatical rules in second language learning was examined by assessing high school students performance after several years of study on the correct use of the Spanish verbs ser and estar. These two verbs are essentially equivalent in use to the English verb “to be,” but there is a complex set of statements that specifies when each is to be used. A 100-item two-choice test in which students from several different high schools receiving instruction in the explicit principles of these two Spanish verbs or receiving immersion training in which no instruction in their grammatical principles was given were examined for the following five factors: (a) general achievement level, (b) comparison of grade level achievement, (c) time allotted to complete the 100-item test, (d) grammatical instruction prior to taking the 100-item test, and (e) comparison of instructional methodology. The results indicated that students receiving explicit instruction in the rules of ser and estar beyond the first year of study achieved slightly higher scores, but that the level of achievement was considered to be poor. Differences between groups for the remaining factors were not significant. It was concluded that successful application of explicitly learned grammatical rules, such as the rules for ser and estar, may not be achievable in the time frame of a two-year high school foreign language course. Considerations regarding implicit and explicit acquisition of grammatical rules in second language learning were presented.