Internal consistency of a diagnostic interview for children: The Child Assessment Schedule

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the internal consistency of the content scales of the Child Assessment Schedule (CAS). A total of 116 psychiatric patients with a mean age of 10 years were administered the interview, and 92 parents were administered the parent version. Coefficient alpha was calculated for each of the 11 content scales. High internal consistency was demonstrated for school, friends, worries, mood, physical complaints, and expression of anger. More moderate but acceptable alphas were observed for the family, fears, and self-image scales. The same general pattern of results was observed for both the child and parent interviews. Additional analyses revealed that the number of items in the CAS could be reduced up to 30% without sacrificing internal consistency. These results indicate that 9 of the scales yield reliable scores.     

Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers

This study was designed to determine whether the personal and interpersonal difficulties that characterize victimized children are antecedents of victimization, consequences of victimization, or both. Boys and girls in the 3rd through 7th grades (N = 173, mean age = 11.3 years) were assessed on victimization, personal variables (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and physical strength), and interpersonal variables (number of friends and peer rejection). One year later children were assessed again on all variables. Internalizing problems, physical weakness, and peer rejection contributed uniquely to gains in victimization over time. Moreover, initial victimization predicted increases in later internalizing symptoms and peer rejection. These reciprocal influences suggest the existence of a vicious cycle that supports the strong temporal stability of peer victimization.     

A HIERARCHICAL CONSTRUCT OF SELF-MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO QUALITY OF WORK LIFE AND PERCEIVED WORK GROUP EFFECTIVENESS

This study validates the self-management leadership theory as operationalized by the Self-Management Leadership Questionnaire (Manz & Sims, 1987) in a large telephone company. The sample for this study is 390 self-managing and 412 traditionally managed employees and 94 external leaders from 58 self-managing and 60 traditionally managed teams. Results support Manz and Sims' 6-factor pattern at the first-order level, and in addition, identify a common second-order factor. The hierarchical factor structure is invariant in employee and leader samples drawn from both self-managing and traditionally managed work teams, suggesting that the construct of self-managing leadership is similar for members and leaders of both types of teams. Respondents perceive slightly more self-management leadership behaviors in the self-managing than the traditional work teams. Respondents evaluate self-managing work teams as more effective than traditional work teams, and this difference is moderate in size. Self-managing leadership behaviors are positively associated with QWL (mainly employee satisfaction) and self-rated effectiveness for both self-managing and traditional teams. In general, self-managing work teams are not that different from traditionally managed groups in the relationship of self-managing leadership to outcomes. We conclude that self-management leadership is a hierarchical concept, constituted of specific strategies as well as a general orientation toward empowering employees. These leadership behaviors are applicable to managing both traditional and self-managing work teams.     

A META-ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONS AMONG TRAINING CRITERIA

An augmented framework for training criteria based on Kirkpatrick's (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) model divides training reactions into affective and utility reactions, and learning into post-training measures of learning, retention, and behavior/skill demonstration. A total of 34 studies yielding 115 correlations were analyzed meta-analytically. Results included substantial reliabilities across training criteria and reasonable convergence among subdivisions of criteria within a larger level. Utility-type reaction measures were more strongly related to learning or on-the-job performance (transfer) than affective-type reaction measures. Moreover, utility-type reaction measures were stronger correlates of transfer than were measures of immediate or retained learning. These latter findings support recent concurrent thinking regarding use of reactions in training (e.g., Warr & Bunce, 1995). Implications for choosing and developing training criteria are discussed.     

Differential Effects of Global Ischemia on Delayed Matching- and Non-Matching-to-Position Tasks in the Water Maze and Skinner Box

In order to assess effects of global ischemia in tasks of spatial learning and working memory, male Wistar rats were subjected to four vessel occlusion (4 VO) for periods of 5, 10, and 20 min and compared with sham-operated controls over four test phases, from 6 to 54 weeks after surgery. Rats were assessed on acquisition in the water maze, a task that is sensitive to ischemic impairments, before testing in Skinner box and water maze working memory tasks, which both require the short-term storage of information, but make different demands on spatial information processing. Phases 1 and 3 assessed spatial learning in a standard water maze procedure (12 and 10 training days, 2 trials/day with a 10-min intertrial interval: ITI). Phase 2 involved training and testing in delayed non-matching-to-position task in the Skinner box, with delays of 2–10 s between the information and choice stages. Phase 4 examined working memory in a water maze delayed matching-to-position task with 4 trials/day, an ITI of 30 s, and a novel platform position on each day. Ischemic rats showed duration-related impairments in water maze acquisition and working memory, but not in the less spatially demanding Skinner box task. Since water maze acquisition deficits were seen both before and after testing in the Skinner box the lack of effect cannot be attributed to time or to prior training. Ischemic deficits were more marked in Phase 3 than in Phase 1 of acquisition, suggesting that impairment may be progressive. Histological assessment showed that cell loss was largely confined to the hippocampal CA1 field and was linearly related to duration of occlusion. At the maximal level of loss (5.7 mm before the interaural line) the 20-min group showed 90% loss, the 10-min group 60% loss, and the 5-min group, which did not differ from controls, less than 10% loss. Only the 20-min group showed significant damage beyond the CA1 field, ranging from 30–40% loss in the CA3 field to 5% loss in one striatal area. No cortical damage was seen. The extent of CA1 cell loss correlated modestly with water maze acquisition (Phase 3) and working memory scores, but not with trials to criterion in the Skinner box task. There were significant correlations between different measures both within and between water maze tasks, but not Skinner box tasks, suggesting that the two types of procedure engaged different cognitive processes. The results indicate that the intrahippocampal damage induced by 4 VO impaired tasks which required processing of allocentric spatial information, but did not impair the storage of limited spatial information in working memory.     

EFFECTS OF RATER TRAINING AND PARTICIPATION ON COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY: AN EXPLORATION OF SCHNEIER'S COGNITIVE REINTERPRETATION

Schneier (1977) proposed that rater cognitive complexity interacts with format to affect the psychometric soundness of ratings. He also speculated that cognitive complexity may be enhanced by having raters participate in training and/or scale construction programs. This study was designed to test these latter hypotheses, while also providing a partial replication of Schneier's original research. Ninety-six undergraduate students were assigned to four groups. One participated in the construction of a set of BARS and was trained in their use, a second participated in BARS construction only, a third received training only, and the fourth served as a control group. All subjects were administered a measure of cognitive complexity before and after the experimental treatments. Also, all subjects evaluated five simulated ratees using the BARS. A training × participation (2 × 2) ANOCOV indicated no change in cognitive complexity scores as a result of the experimental treatments. A training × participation × (nominalized) cognitive complexity (2 × 2 × 2) MANOVA on mean ratings for the five stimuli found no effects on leniency error. A similar MANOVA on variances of ratings provided little evidence for effects on halo error. These results, taken in conjunction with those of other investigators who have failed to replicate Schneier's findings, suggest that the cognitive reinterpretation should be accepted with caution at best.     

Gender, Rewards and Research in Education

Under the "merit" ideology of academic research, the criteria for academic rewards are quality and quantity of research publications. Do men and women receive equal rewards for equal performance in educational and social research? This question is addressed with a sample of 901 authors of research on education, 14% of whom were women. Gross differences emerge between men and women regarding levels of income. Lesser differences appear in research resources and rank, and no variations occur in departmental prestige. A sample of 390 of their research papers were anonymously rated by a national panel of 39 judges, revealing no difference in the quality of work done by men and women. Women, however, are less productive than men, and consequently less frequently cited. But the criteria of quality and quantity of publications are not related to rewards in the same way for women and men. Quantity counts more heavily for women than for men, although important for both. Hence, performance criteria are selectively applied by gender in ways that affect women detrimentally.     

School psychology and early education: Contributions of Boyd R. McCandless

The writings of Boyd R. McCandless and his colleagues concerned with socialization, sex role development, research methodology, early education, and the relationship of his work to school psychology and early education are discussed. McCandless' interests were diverse, but revolved around a central and continuous concern for those who have less access to experiences which are basic to productive and self-fulfilling lives. There is much in a review of this person's life and work that is instructive for both the academic and the practitioner.