The effect of on‐ or off‐line extinction of a first‐order conditioned stimulus on a second‐order conditioned response in rats

In a water‐licking experiment with rats, the effects of the extinction of a first‐order conditioned stimulus (CS1) on the suppression of licking established for a second‐order conditioned stimulus (CS2) were explored. Extinction of the first‐order conditioned response (CR1) attenuated the conditioned suppression induced by CS2 when the rats had been allowed to lick water during the CR1 extinction phase. However, if water had been unavailable during the CR1 extinction phase, suppression by CS2 was not affected. The latter result is consistent with other studies of rats' conditioned suppression and suggests that the underlying mechanism of second‐order conditioning in this experiment is a connection between CS2 and the response elicited by CS1 rather than a CS2‐CS1 connection. The former result was interpreted as the CR1 extinction phase encouraging the rats to lick water despite the fear elicited by CS1, and thus, in testing, they licked despite the fear elicited by CS2.     

A Bayesian predictive analysis of test scores

In the classical test theory, a high-reliability test always leads to a precise measurement. However, when it comes to the prediction of test scores, it is not necessarily so. Based on a Bayesian statistical approach, we predicted the distributions of test scores for a new subject, a new test, and a new subject taking a new test. Under some reasonable conditions, the predicted means, variances, and covariances of predicted scores were obtained and investigated. We found that high test reliability did not necessarily lead to small variances or covariances. For a new subject, higher test reliability led to larger predicted variances and covariances, because high test reliability enabled a more accurate prediction of test score variances. Regarding a new subject taking a new test, in this study, higher test reliability led to a large variance when the sample size was smaller than half the number of tests. The classical test theory is reanalyzed from the viewpoint of predictions and some suggestions are made.     

CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS BY JAPANESE AND AMERICAN MOTHERS AND CHILDREN ABOUT PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS*

In this study we examined the possibility that causal inferences about performance may help explain the relatively superior achievement of Japanese students in mathematics. Data from mothers and children in Japan and the U.S. were examined for (a) attributions about causes of performance in math; (b) intra-family transmission of beliefs; and (c) effect of sex of child on attributions. Results showed that Japanese mothers and children emphasized effort, particularly for low performance, while American mothers and children emphasized ability. Beliefs of mothers and children were similar within country but not within family, suggesting that transmission is diffuse. Differences in attributions about performance of boys and girls did not appear in Japan and in the U.S. appeared for mothers only. The emphasis placed on attributions to effort seems to offer a highly motivating context for Japanese students.     

MATERNAL EXPECTATIONS FOR MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS IN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES*

Maternal expectations about development help organize parental behavior by providing internal referents against which a child's growth and behavior are evaluated, thus identifying occasions for intervention by the adult. Fifty-eight mothers from Japan and 67 mothers from the United States were interviewed about the ages at which they expected their four-year-old children to acquire a number of specific developmental skills. There were no differences between the two groups of mothers in mean age of mastery expectation across all 38 items but Japanese mothers expected early mastery on skills that indicated emotional maturity, self-control, and social courtesy. Mothers in the U.S. expected mastery at an earlier age on items indicating verbal assertiveness and social skills with peers. Maternal expectations were found to correlate with children's performance on tests of school aptitude when the children were six years of age.     

Difference threshold for stimulus length under simultaneous and nonsimultaneous viewing conditions

The present study was concerned with Weber’s Law as it is related to the discriminability of the lengths of lines. Experiments were conducted to investigate three questions: (I) Is Weber’s Law equally applicable to simultaneous and nonsimultaneous viewing conditions? (2) Is the relationship between the stimulus sizes and the values ofDLs described more adequately by the function proposed by Weber or a generalized Weber’s Law stated by Miller? and (3) Is Weber’s Law better approximated by proximal or distal size? It was demonstrated that the discriminability of the lengths of lines follows Weber’s Law under the nonsimultaneous viewing condition, but not under the simultaneous viewing condition. Under the nonsimultaneous viewing condition, it was noted that the generalized Weber’s Law as stated by Miller described the relationship between the DL and stimulus size significantly better than the function proposed by Weber. From the results pertaining to the third question, it was not possible to determine whether the proximal or the distal size follows Weber’s Law more closely.     

THE SEMANTICS OF FACIAL EXPRESSIONS AND THE PREDICTION OF THE MEANINGS OF STEREOSCOPICALLY FUSED FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

Two experiments were concerned with scaling affective meanings of posed facial expressions using a specially devised form of semantic differential and with determining the extent to which the meaning of stereoscopically fused facial expressions could be predicted. Both experiments provided evidence for at least three dimensions. High reliability for scaling the affective meanings of facial expressions was demonstrated. Two methods were employed for predicting the meaning of a composite expression. The results indicated that the predictions based on the congruity principle do no better than those based on a simple algebraic mean of the two components.     

BINOCULAR RIVALRY AS A FUNCTION OF INCONGRUITY IN MEANING

This is the third of a series of three papers dealing with semantics of facial expressions. The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether the ratings of two stimulus inputs on semantic differential scales would predict the experience of binocular rivalry. The stimuli used were five full-face photographs of a man expressing different emotions. These stimuli were rated on the semantic differential and all possible pairs of these stimuli were used as stereograms. It was hypothesized that semantically incongruous stimulus inputs would lead to binocular rivalry and that congruous ones would lead to an absence of rivalry. The hypothesis was supported.     

On the semantic duplicity of the first person pronoun “I”

Continental Philosophy Review -     

Random Walker Test: A computerized alternative to the Road-Map Test

The Road-Map Test (RMT) is a popular neurological assessment of left-right orientation, using a simplified road map. Inspired by the RMT, we developed a new computerized navigation test, the Random Walker Test (RWT), for further quantitative assessment of left-right orientation ability. RWT provides verbal or nonverbal instructions for the direction (left, right, or front) in which to proceed, and participants must judge the spatially correct direction. Perspectives rotate by 90° during navigation. Verbal judgments demand verbal-to-spatial mapping of left/right/front and, if necessary, egocentric perspective rotation. Using the RWT, we evaluated the left-right orientation of normal male participants. The RWT reliably recorded the response times and error rates for participant performance and also revealed egocentric perspective rotation as an unreliable mental process with large intra- and interpersonal variability. These results indicate that the RWT may be useful in investigating left-right orientation and/or egocentric perspective rotation in both normal participants and neuropathological patients.