Culture and Personality: Variability across Universal Motives as the Missing Link

What is the relation between culture and personality? I argue that to address this question, it is necessary to meet five criteria: (1) to identify universal principles of human functioning that underlie both culture and personality; (2) to treat those principles at different levels of analysis for culture and personality; (3) to define culture and personality in terms of those principles in a manner that maintains the integrity of these concepts; (4) to select specific psychological factors that, because of their survival value, are present in every culture and individual, although to varying degrees; and (5) to postulate how different cultures and personalities emerge from variability in the predominance of those specific psychological factors. I then propose that these criteria can be met by identifying specific human motives that are both universal and vary across individuals, situations, and groups. I propose a five‐step model that describes how cultures influence the personalities that emerge among its members, with particular emphasis on the human‐defining period of development between 3 and 6 years of age, and how those personalities in turn influence the culture (from effects of regulatory fit). As initial support for the model, evidence is reviewed for commonality among cultures in the existence of promotion, prevention, locomotion, and assessment motives; for variability across cultures in the predominance of these motives as modal personalities; and for universality in the relations between each motive and Big Five and self‐esteem trait characteristics. Combining the latter universal relations with the cultural variability in modal personalities yields cultural differences in manners of goal pursuit.     

A behavioral economic analysis of concurrently available money and cigarettes.

In economic terms, consumption of a reinforcer is determined by its price and the availability and price of other reinforcers. This study examined the effects of response-requirement (i.e., price) manipulations on the self-administration of two concurrently available reinforcers. Six cigarette smokers participated in 4-hr sessions in which money and puffs on a cigarette were concurrently available according to fixed-ratio schedules of reinforcement. Once stable responding was obtained with both reinforcers available at Fixed Ratio 100, the response requirement for one reinforcer was systematically varied (Fixed Ratio 1,000 and 2,500), while the other reinforcer remained scheduled at Fixed Ratio 100. Increasing the fixed-ratio size for a reinforcer decreased its consumption, with a greater decrease occurring for monetary reinforcement. This finding was quantified in economic terms as own-price elasticity, with elasticity coefficients greater for money than cigarettes. The effects of fixed-ratio size on response output also differed across the two reinforcers. Although greater responding occurred for money at Fixed Ratio 100, increases in fixed-ratio size (for money) decreased responding for money, whereas the same increase in fixed-ratio size (for puffs) increased responding for puffs. Finally, increasing the fixed-ratio size for one reinforcer had little effect on consumption of the other concurrently available reinforcer. This finding was quantified as cross-price elasticity, with elasticity coefficients near 0.0 for most subjects, indicating little or no reinforcer interaction. The results indicate that the reinforcing effects of cigarettes and money in the setting studied here differed, and that the effects produced by changing the price of one reinforcer did not interact with the consumption of the other concurrently available reinforcer.     

Managing others like you were managed: how prevention focus motivates copying interpersonal norms

In 5 studies, we investigated the relation between regulatory focus and the tendency to copy a role model's managing behavior after one experiences this behavior as its recipient and later takes on the same managing role. Because enacting role-related behaviors fulfills interpersonal norms that fit prevention concerns, we predicted a stronger tendency to copy among individuals with a stronger prevention focus on duties and obligations ("oughts") but not among those with a stronger promotion focus on aspirations and advancements (ideals). We also predicted that individuals with a stronger prevention focus would tend to copy a managing behavior regardless of their earlier hedonic experience with this behavior as its recipient. These predictions were first supported in 2 experimental studies, where a stronger prevention focus was measured as a chronic disposition (Study 1) and experimentally induced as a temporary state (Study 2). Further, we tested the mechanism underlying the relation between stronger prevention and stronger copying and found that concerns about the normativeness, but not the effectiveness, of a managing behavior motivated copying for individuals with a strong prevention focus (Studies 3 and 4). We generalized these experimental results to the field by surveying a sample of superior-subordinate dyads in real world organizations (Study 5). Across all studies, we found that individuals with a stronger prevention focus tend to copy more a role model's managing behavior--independent of their hedonic satisfaction with the behavior as its recipient and their perception of its effectiveness.     

Regulatory mode orientations and well‐being in an organizational setting: the differential mediating roles of workaholism and work engagement

This paper examines the relationships between two independent regulatory mode orientations, locomotion and assessment, and well‐being in organizational contexts. Results from a sample of 320 employees revealed that locomotion was negatively associated with burnout and psychological strain whereas assessment was positively associated with burnout and strain. The effects of locomotion and assessment on burnout and strain were mediated by workaholism and work engagement. Both locomotion and assessment predicted greater workaholism; however, locomotion was positively associated whereas assessment was negatively associated with work engagement. In turn, workaholism predicted greater burnout and strain, and work engagement predicted less burnout and strain. Implications for employee health and organizational success are discussed.     

Number of Sexual Partners and Social Disorganization: A Developmental Trajectory Approach

Utilizing a developmental trajectory approach, this study examines whether or not the perceived presence of social disorganization within communities contributes to the experience of having multiple sexual partners. The sample consists of African-American self-reports (n = 402) originating from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79). Analysis centers on responses from individuals who were ages 15 to 17 in 1998, 17 to 19 in 2000, 19 to 21 in 2002, 21 to 23 in 2004, 23 to 25 in 2006, and 25 to 27 in 2008. Following trajectory analysis of their reported number of sexual partners and perceptions of social disorganization, three groups are identified, showing variations in perceptions and number of sexual partners. Overall, results from these groups indicate that perceived social disorganization among African Americans has some impact on their number of sexual partners. Implications and directions for future research concerning social disorganization and public health are discussed.     

Developmental Trajectories of Maternal and Paternal Attachment and Delinquency in Adolescence

The present study sought to address two research questions: (1) Are there distinct trajectories of maternal and paternal attachment among adolescents? And if so, (2) How do these trajectories of maternal and paternal attachment relate to delinquent trajectories over the ages of 12 to 16? Using a subsample (n = 383) of the longitudinal Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) data, the results from semi-parametric group-based modeling (SPGM) suggested five groups of maternal attachment, where one trajectory exhibited little to no maternal attachment; another group appeared to have an initially low rate of maternal attachment but increased rather noticeably over time; a third trajectory demonstrated high initial levels of maternal attachment but a general decline over time; and the last two groups exhibited high and rather stable rates of maternal attachment, although one of these groups showed evidence of a decline. Comparatively, the same number of trajectory groups was estimated for paternal attachment, with relatively similar patterns over time as for the maternal attachment trajectories, with the exception of one trajectory that appeared to decline initially before demonstrating a substantial increase. Finally, the results from the joint trajectory analysis indicated that as maternal and paternal attachment increased the likelihood for delinquency decreased. Implications for future research and policy are also discussed.     

Low Self-control and Deviance: Examining the Moderation of Social Support from Parents

Drawing on self-report survey data from a sample of 425 college students in 2001, this study examines whether parental support can moderate the link between low self-control and deviance. Using multiple measures of low self-control and parental support and item parcels of deviance, structural equation models are developed to arrive at the results. Results reveal that parental support does not completely moderate the link between low self-control and deviance. Importantly, we find that parental support can reduce the link that low self-control has with deviance, suggesting that this is a measure that may be manipulated to reduce instances of deviance.     

Digital Piracy: An Examination of Three Measurements of Self-Control

Research has shown a link between digital piracy and self-control. However, the research focuses on only one version of self-control theory. The purpose of the present study is to examine the link between self-control and digital piracy. Using data from 358 college students, this study shows that all 3 measures of self-control help us understand the link between self-control and digital piracy. The results indicate that illuminating the factors that could be inhibitions and developing strong social bonds can reduce the likelihood of digital piracy.