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Whether people compete or cooperate with each other has consequences for their own performance and that of organizations. To explain why people compete or cooperate, previous research has focused on two main factors: situational outcome structures and personality types. Here, we propose that—above and beyond these two factors—situational cues, such as the format in which people receive feedback, strongly affect whether they act competitively, cooperatively, or individualistically. Results of a laboratory experiment support our theorizing: After receiving ranking feedback, both students and experienced managers treated group situations with cooperative outcome structures as competitive and were in consequence willing to forgo guaranteed financial gains to pursue a—financially irrelevant—better rank. Conversely, in dilemma situations, feedback based on the joint group outcome led to more cooperation than ranking feedback. Our study contributes to research on competition, cooperation, interdependence theory, forced ranking, and the design of information environments. 相似文献
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Herbert Sklar C.S.W. 《Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy》1988,18(2):107-123
This paper emphasizes the impact of the setting, space, and general physical properties of the clinic upon the difficult patient's profound neediness and absence of inner regulatory structure. Moreover, the clinic's administrative style and requirements often related to fiscal restraints, demands for accountability for both how funds are spent and treatment outcome, all impinge upon the patient. Humanizing clinics so they have the capacity for psychotherapeutic holding and provision of safety for difficult patients are discussed in detail in this contribution. 相似文献
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In Korea, two number systems are in simultaneous use. One is somewhat irregular (like the English language number system), and the other regular (similar to the Chinese number system). This natural experiment allows a direct test of the hypothesis that structural regularity of the number system facilitates the acquisition of counting. Korean children initially suffer from their numerical ‘bilingualism’: they find it difficult to learn two counting systems at the same time. Yet, after this initial difficulty, they soon master the generative rules which are transparent in the regular system. The cognitive advantage provided by the regular number system then combines with other factors, like intensive teaching and parental pressure, to produce school achievement in mathematics superior to US children's. 相似文献
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Randolph W. Parks Daniel S. Levine Debra L. Long David J. Crockett Irene E. Dalton Herbert Weingartner Paul Fedio Kerry L. Coburn Gil Siler Jane R. Matthews Robert E. Becker 《Neuropsychology review》1992,3(2):213-233
Neural networks can be used as a tool in the explanation of neuropsychological data. Using the Hebbian Learning Rule and other such principles as competition and modifiable interlevel feedback, researchers have successfully modeled a widely used neuropsychological test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. One of these models is reviewed here and extended to a qualitative analysis of how verbal fluency might be modeled, which demonstrates the importance of accounting for the attentional components of both tests. Difficulties remain in programming sequential cognitive processes within a parallel distributed processing (PDP) framework and integrating exceedingly complex neuropsychological tests such as Proverbs. PDP neural network methodology offers neuropsychologists co-validation procedures within narrowly defined areas of reliability and validity. 相似文献