The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: converging neuroimaging evidence

"Is there a biology of intelligence which is characteristic of the normal human nervous system?" Here we review 37 modern neuroimaging studies in an attempt to address this question posed by Halstead (1947) as he and other icons of the last century endeavored to understand how brain and behavior are linked through the expression of intelligence and reason. Reviewing studies from functional (i.e., functional magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography) and structural (i.e., magnetic resonance spectroscopy, diffusion tensor imaging, voxel-based morphometry) neuroimaging paradigms, we report a striking consensus suggesting that variations in a distributed network predict individual differences found on intelligence and reasoning tasks. We describe this network as the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT). The P-FIT model includes, by Brodmann areas (BAs): the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BAs 6, 9, 10, 45, 46, 47), the inferior (BAs 39, 40) and superior (BA 7) parietal lobule, the anterior cingulate (BA 32), and regions within the temporal (BAs 21, 37) and occipital (BAs 18, 19) lobes. White matter regions (i.e., arcuate fasciculus) are also implicated. The P-FIT is examined in light of findings from human lesion studies, including missile wounds, frontal lobotomy/leukotomy, temporal lobectomy, and lesions resulting in damage to the language network (e.g., aphasia), as well as findings from imaging research identifying brain regions under significant genetic control. Overall, we conclude that modern neuroimaging techniques are beginning to articulate a biology of intelligence. We propose that the P-FIT provides a parsimonious account for many of the empirical observations, to date, which relate individual differences in intelligence test scores to variations in brain structure and function. Moreover, the model provides a framework for testing new hypotheses in future experimental designs.     

Global Versus Health-Specific Social Support and Match of Preferred and Perceived Social Support Levels in Relationship to Compliance and Blood Pressure of Hypertensives1

A comparison of the relative usefulness of a standardized measure of global perceived social support (Procidano and Heller, 1983) with a health-specific index showed that the latter was a better predictor of compliance for a sample consisting mostly of older female hypertensives. However, the relationship of support and compliance to actual health, as measured by blood pressure levels at two times separated by 3 to 6 months, was found to be weak. The hypothesis that the degree of fit between preference for social support and amount of perceived support would affect compliance was not upheld. A model of social support as the positive reaction of others to patients with good health status was proposed as an alternative or complement to the prevalent model in which support is viewed as an antecedent of compliance, and eventually, of improved health.     

Structural Family Therapy

Research studies show that Chinese communities in the United States are in need of mental health services. Structural family therapy offers an effective model for treating families in need of therapy. This article describes why and how the model can be applied.     

Firearm violence and the effects of gun control legislation

Two gun control laws designed to reduce different types of violent crimes were evaluated. In 1981, East St. Louis, IL, imposed stricter penalties for individuals who carry firearms outside their homes for protection (individuals could keep firearms in their homes). This law had only a temporary impact in reducing firearm use in assaults and robberies. In Evanston, IL, a slightly different approach was taken with legislation that banned handguns in the entire city (i.e., individuals could not keep handguns within their homes). A temporary reduction in firearm assaults occurred a few months before the gun law took effect. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Social Support Rejection and Reappraisal by Providers and Recipients1

Study 1 used recalled incidents involving offered or sought social support that were either rejected or later reappraised. Rejected offers of support were perceived to be ignored by would-be recipients, whereas rejected requests for support were viewed as due to lack of concern by would-be providers. For providers, upward reappraisal of support as well as downward reappraisal was usually based on direct feedback of consequences. Recipient reappraisals in either direction were also based mainly on outcomes that contradicted initial perceived effects of support. Study 2 provided additional evidence on the factors that might lead to rejected support. Evaluations of the effect of specific behaviors from potential support providers in hypothetical stress situations identified common behaviors such as offering advice, implying blame, second-guessing the victim's behavior, and minimizing the problem to be unhelpful. Implications for increasing the effective delivery of social support are discussed.