Strategies in the recall of clusterable lists

The present study assessed the effectiveness of a multi-session training aproach intended to teach mildly retarded adolescents to discover and utilize categorical list structure. The performance of a group of trained retarded individuals was compared with that of another group of retarded individuals who had simply received practice with the training materials. The performance of both retarded groups was evaluated relative to that of a group of equivalent-CA normal adolescents. Recall transfer with a new word list was indicated by the finding that trained retarded subjects achieved a criterion of perfect recall in fewer trials than untrained retarded subjects. Differences in the use of categorization strategies by normal and retarded subjects were interpreted in the light of the automatic-controlled processing distinction of Schneider and Shiffrin (1977).     

Properties of the diffuse thalamocortical system, human intelligence and differentiated vs integrated modes of learning

In complementary reports Robinson (1982a, b) describes how the transmission characteristics or time constants of thalamic and cortical neuron populations of the diffuse thalamocortical system (DTS) can be evaluated in human subjects. Equating these constants with the Pavlovian property of ‘strength’ it was predicted that they should relate to Extraversion and Neuroticism scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). This prediction was confirmed and the results provide direct support for the theories of Pavlov and Eysenck. The present report describes additional results which confirm predictions relating the DTS constants to performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and on the Embedded Figures Test (EFT). An important finding was that a measure of deviation from intermediate and ‘balanced’ values of the DTS constants loads to the extent of -0.80 on the WAIS ‘memory’ or ‘attention/ concentration’ factor. More generally, the results provide further support for Pavlov's conception of brain-behaviour relationships and suggest that the DTS plays a fundamental role in determining a broad spectrum of human psychological differences including some associated with the concepts of intelligence and cognitive style. These IQ and cognitive style differences are explained as the immediate and longer-term consequences, respectively, of differences in the distribution of background cortical activity mediated by the DTS.     

Gender differences in performance attributions: Students' explanations for personal success or failure

Women are often said to exhibit an externality bias in their performance attributions. To test this hypothesis, male and female college students made effort, ability, luck, and task difficulty attributions for their performance on a recent course examination. Measures of the students' affective reactions toward their performance were also obtained. Successful students, whether male or female, made internal attributions and were pleased with their performance. Stronger internal attributions were associated with more positive affective reactions for these students. Unsuccessful female students made external attributions, were displeased with their performance, and felt better when they attributed their failure to unstable factors. Unsuccessful male students were also displeased with their performance, but tended to make more internal attributions for their failure, and felt better as a result. These findings, which suggest the influence of an internality bias among men, rather than an externality bias among women, were interpreted in terms of the male sex role.     

Sources of organizational power for women: Overcoming structural obstacles

The ability of women (and men) to achieve success within organizational settings depends on their understanding structural and behavioral dimensions of power. However, the increased emphasis on educating women in the behavioral methods (e.g., assertiveness, aspirations, politics) of acquiring power invariably minimizes or omits the potential contribution of structural considerations. In their journey toward power acquisition, women must recognize and utilize the wide array of structural paths available to them. An analysis is undertaken of the main structural (organizational) sources of power — centrality, coping with uncertainty, and control over resources — with emphasis on their ramifications for women.The research cited in this article includes empirically based studies as well as observations, assertions, or admonitions that have not received extensive empirical validation. Nonetheless, the latter personal experiences and observations of these authorities may be valid.Management Analysis Company     

Toward understanding sex differences in pay allocation: Agency,communion, and reward distribution behavior

This research examined the extent to which the personality characteristics of agency and communion are sex linked, and the extent to which differences in these orientations can account for sex differences in reward distribution behavior. In two studies, the agency and communion level of large samples of male and female undergraduates were assessed. As expected, males were more agentic and females were more communal. Moreover, when subjects who scored high or low on agency and high or low on communion were asked to allocate rewards between themselves and a co-worker, these personality differences were related to their allocation decisions. These results were used as the basis for discussing the role that sex-linked personality differences might play in distributive justice judgments.This article is an adaptation of a colloquium presentation at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, August 1981. The research reported here was supported by NIMH grant MH29987-1, Goals, Motives, and Norms of Reward Distribution, and by NIMH Biomedical Research Support Grant from the College of Social Science, Michigan State University. The authors wish to thank Andrea Doughty for her valuable advice, and to gratefully acknowledge the help of Mark Teicher, Julie B. Klein, Sue Schnelbach, Pat Loepp, Barb Allen, Gavin Goodrich, Bob O'Hara, Kelly Bowen, Rod Hollenstein, Steve Schultz, and Mary Hurst.     

Psychophysiological effects of noxious imagery: Prevalence and prediction

Research suggests that people who generate psychophysiological arousal in emotive imagery therapies are likely to show the largest therapeutic gains. This study investigated the frequency of occurrence and methods of predicting this imagery skill. The effects of five fearful imagery themes on 95 undergraduate volunteers were evaluated in individual sessions by psychophysiological (SRL, EKG and EMG), self-report (anxiety and clarity ratings) and behavioral (motoric expression) measures. Additionally, four questionnaires (Betts, Gordon, APQ and STAI) were administered in a group session. EKG arousal occurred in 66% of our subjects, SRL arousal in 38% and EMG arousal in 16%. Only 9% of our subjects experienced arousal in all three psychophysiological responses and 24% experienced arousal in neither. Motoric expression (overt behavioral emoting) best predicted psychophysiological arousal, self-report ratings were a distant second, and the questionnaires were worthless in this regard. Imagery-induced psychophysiological arousal appears to be a fairly common phenomena, though it eludes convenient prediction. Some training strategies were discussed, (response proposition instructions, biofeedback and motoric coaching), which could be employed with persons deficient in psychophysiological imagery skills prior to their commencing an emotive imagery therapy.     

Second-order ‘fear’ conditioning in humans: Persistence of CR2 following extinction of CR1

Two groups of subjects were given pairings of a slide of a triangle (CS₁) with an aversive loud noise (US). After first-order conditioning a different figure (CS₂⁺) was paired with CS₁, whilst a third figure acted as a non-paired control (CS₂⁰). Conditioned second-order skin conductance responses (SCRs) were established to CS₂⁺ for all subjects who had undergone first-order conditioning. Following second-order conditioning, SCRs to CS₁ were extinguished and CS₂⁺ was subsequently tested for retention of its SCR evoking properties. For the group of subjects who believed they had an avoidance response available during the second-order conditioning phase, CR₂ failed to survive extinction of CR₁. However, for the group of subjects who had no perceived control over US presentation, extinction of cr₁ did not eliminate CR₂. This latter finding is consistent with associative analyses of second-order conditioning in animals and has clinical implications for the treatment of fear-related problems.