Withholding Effort in Organizations: Toward Development and Validation of a Measure

Field research into the topic of withholding effort and its variants (shirking, loafing, free riding, and job neglect) has been limited due to a lack of measures that are applicable to organizational settings. This study used a multi-phase process to ascertain a measure of withholding effort that can be used in organizational settings. Items were generated through literature review and discussions with practitioners; culled by the authors; and tested in a field study in multiple, diverse organizations. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses found the construct of withholding effort to be multidimensional, but not necessarily as previous theoretical work in the area would suggest. Correlations of the various dimensions of withholding effort scales with existing scales tapping a wide range of employee attitudes were consistent with a priori expectations. Implications for the use of these scales in future workplace research and their practical application in organizations are discussed.     

A mathematical approach for establishing treatment priorities among patients

Medical decision making often utilizes subjective observations to arrive at concrete judgments. The decisions frequently affect who receives scarce medical treatments and, thus, who lives or dies. In this paper, a model health status index is described. It is specific for the problem of choosing patients for hemodialysis or transplantation. Such a health status index may be designed for any medical decision involving such issues as drug treatment priorities, identification of salvageable patients, and selection of patients for scarce medical treatment. This index (1) incorporates a physician's own medical criteria and values, (2) can be modified as the data base improves, (3) assures consistency from decision to decision, and (4) can be developed and used without the help of a mathematician or computer.     

Towards a Universal Civilization

An address given on 2 April 1997 at the Institute of Islamic Understanding, Malaysia (IKIM) on the occasion of the official visit of H.E. Prof. Dr Roman Herzog, President of the Federal Republic of Germany     

Divorcing mothers and social support: Testing the specificity of buffering effects

The circumstances under which social support buffers the negative effects of stress have been a subject of much research. The hypothesis that social support is effective only when it matches the needs elicited by particular stressors was studied in a sample of divorcing mothers. Predictions were made regarding which types of support (Parenting, Emotional, and Tangible) would buffer the effects of Parenting, Social, and Tangible stress on depressive symptoms and on general psychological distress of divorcing mothers. Results did not support the specificity of social support buffering effects, though the stress and support scales often showed direct relationships to criterion measures. Implications were discussed for the assessment of support with multiple models, for future research designs, and for planning prevention programs to meet the needs of divorcing mothers.