Content Externalism and the Internalism/Externalism Debate in Justification Theory

While recent debates over content externalism have been mainly concerned with whether it undermines the traditional thesis of privileged self-knowledge, little attention has been paid to what bearing content externalism has on such important controversies as the internalism/externalism debate in epistemology. With a few exceptions, the question has either been treated as a side issue in discussions concerning the implications of content externalism, or has been dealt with in a cursory way in debates over the internalism/externalism distinction in justification theory. In this paper, I begin by considering some of the arguments that have sought to address the question, focusing mainly on Boghossian's pioneering attempt in bringing the issue to the fore.¹ It will be argued that Boghossian's attempt to exploit the alleged non-inferentiality of self-knowledge to show that content externalism and justification internalism are incompatible fails.
In the course of this examination, I consider and reject as inadequate some recent responses to Boghossian's argument (due to James Chase²). I then turn to evaluating Chase's own proposed argument to show how content externalism can be brought to bear on the internalism/externalism debate in epistemology, and find it wanting. Finally, having discussed BonJour's terse remarks in this connection,³ I set out to present, what I take to be, the strongest argument for the incompatibility of content externalism and justification internalism while highlighting the controversial character of one of its main premises. Let us, however, begin by drawing the contours of the debate.     

The Relationship between Religious Coping and Self-Care Behaviors in Iranian Medical Students

In recent years, researchers have identified that coping strategies are an important contributor to an individual’s life satisfaction and ability to manage stress. The positive relationship between religious copings, specifically, with physical and mental health has also been identified in some studies. Spirituality and religion have been discussed rigorously in research, but very few studies exist on religious coping. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between religious coping methods (i.e., positive and negative religious coping) and self-care behaviors in Iranian medical students. This study used a cross-sectional design of 335 randomly selected students from Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. A data collection tool comprised of the standard questionnaire of religious coping methods and questionnaire of self-care behaviors assessment was utilized. Data were analyzed using a two-sample t test assuming equal variances. Adjusted linear regression was used to evaluate the independent association of religious copings with self-care. Adjusted linear regression model indicated an independent significant association between positive (b = 4.616, 95% CI 4.234–4.999) and negative (b = ?3.726, 95% CI ?4.311 to ?3.141) religious coping with self-care behaviors. Findings showed a linear relationship between religious coping and self-care behaviors. Further research with larger sample sizes in diverse populations is recommended.     

Analysis of Emotions and Dysfunctional Attitudes in Depression

The current study was designed to examine the role of basic emotions and dysfunctional attitudes in depression. Moreover, six models related to the organization of emotions were examined through confirmatory factor analysis. Two hundred individuals with major depressive disorder were recruited from three clinical psychology centers. Participants completed a battery of questionnaires measuring basic emotions, dysfunctional attitudes, and depressive. Results demonstrated that the dysfunctional attitude of “need for approval” and the basic emotions of disgust and sadness could predict depressive scores positively and significantly. It was also shown that the dysfunctional attitudes could positively and significantly predict the two negative emotions of disgust and sadness. Thus, the findings supported an analysis in which the two basic emotions of sadness and disgust were elevated in individuals with depressive disorders. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the proposed basic emotions model and did not support alternative models, such as the positive affect and negative affect model.     

Philosophical Expertise and Philosophical Methodology

In recent years a new discussion on the nature of philosophical expertise has emerged: whether philosophers possess a special kind of expertise, what such expertise would entail, how to measure it, and related concerns. The aim of the present article is to clarify certain related points across these debates in the hope of paving a clearer path forward, by addressing the following. (1) The expertise defense, which seems central to many discussions on methodology and expertise, has been misconstrued at times. (2) Questions of expertise and methodology could be separated more clearly. (3) The study of expertise may be important in its own right; however, there may be good reasons to give priority to methodological concerns. (4) Finally, when viewed in light of methodological concerns, a new project emerges when engaging with recent contributions to the expertise debate. The present article attempts a brief outline of this project.     

Adolescent coping in different Chinese family environments

This study explored the relationship between family environment and adolescent coping in a Chinese sample. Four family types were identified with cluster analysis: (a) conflict-control, (b) structured, cohesive, expressive, and recreation-oriented, (c) structured, cohesive, and low conflict, and (d) unstructured and low control. Families with high cohesion, expressiveness, organization, low conflict, and low to medium level of control were associated with a more constructive coping style. Chinese adolescents tended to (a) mobilize personal resources, (b) seek help from social resources, and (c) adopt a philosophy of doing nothing as their major coping style when they had a positive perception of their family environment. This coping style was termed "fatalistic voluntarism." Finally, boys' coping behaviors were somewhat different from girls'. Girls tended to rely more on social support, whereas boys tended to avoid the problem or engage in blaming.     

Growth: A Journey from Experience to Higher Perception Among Iranian Muslim CPR Survivors

Several studies have been conducted among cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) survivors. Some studies have shown that positive and negative experiences coexist. Emotional distress and psychopathology in CPR survivors are related to the urgent need to make growth. Understanding the meaning of CPR survivors’ lived experiences of growth may facilitate their growth. The aim of the study was to illuminate the meaning of CPR survivor’s lived experiences of growth in southeast Iran. A qualitative design using a phenomenological hermeneutic approach influenced by Ricoeur was used in 12 CPR survivors. Three main themes emerged including: (1) opening up a new horizon in the meaning of life, (2) opening up a new horizon in the meaning of interpersonal connections and (3) opening up a new horizon in the meaning of God and spirituality. The interpreted comprehensive understanding conveyed a meaning that CPR survivors’ experience of growth seems to be like opening the doors of perception to the higher reality. The finding may assist other CPR survivors to learn from participants in this study. Exposure to suitable narratives under health care provider supervision could develop profound learning. Training sessions with an emphasis on meditation education and how to use connecting to God in the adaptation process may approve the quality of life of CPR survivors.

     

Aiming at Truth: Doxastic vs. Epistemic Goals

Belief is generally thought to be the primary cognitive state representing the world as being a certain way, regulating our behavior and guiding us around the world. It is thus regarded as being constitutively linked with the truth of its content. This feature of belief has been famously captured in the thesis that believing is a purposive state aiming at truth. It has however proved to be notoriously difficult to explain what the thesis really involves. In this paper, I begin by critically examining a number of recent attempts to unpack the metaphor. I shall then proceed to highlight an error that seems to cripple most of these attempts. This involves the confusion between, what I call, doxastic and epistemic goals. Finally, having offered my own positive account of the aim-of-belief thesis, I shall underline its deflationary nature by distinguishing between aiming at truth and hitting that target (truth). I end by comparing the account with certain prominent inflationary theories of the nature of belief. I am grateful to Muhammed Legenhausen, David Velleman and an anonymous referee of this journal for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.     

The Factor Structure of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale in Veterans Experienced Chemical Weapon Exposure

This study aimed to determine the factor structure of the spiritual well-being among a sample of the Iranian veterans. In this methodological research, 211 male veterans of Iran–Iraq warfare completed the Paloutzian and Ellison spiritual well-being scale. Maximum likelihood (ML) with oblique rotation was used to assess domain structure of the spiritual well-being. The construct validity of the scale was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Reliability was evaluated with Cronbach’s alpha, Theta (θ), and McDonald Omega (Ω) coefficients, intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), and construct reliability (CR). Results of ML and CFA suggested three factors which were labeled “relationship with God,” “belief in fate and destiny,” and “life optimism.” The ICC, coefficients of the internal consistency, and CR were >.7 for the factors of the scale. Convergent validity and discriminant validity did not fulfill the requirements. The Persian version of spiritual well-being scale demonstrated suitable validity and reliability among the veterans of Iran–Iraq warfare.