Effects of Age,Domain, and Processing Demands on Memory Span: Evidence for Differential Decline

Analysis of cross-sectional data from the normative sample of the Wechsler Memory Scale - Third Edition (WMS-III) revealed different patterns of age-related differences in memory span measures depending on the type of memory item, processing demands, and the age of the older adult group. Regression of memory span on age revealed that the slope for Spatial Span raw scores was significantly more negative than the slope for Digit Span raw scores. There was no significant difference, however, either between the slopes for forward and backward Digit Span or between the slopes for forward and backward Spatial Span. Regression of Letter-Number Sequencing raw scores on age showed a distinctive, curvilinear pattern. Taken together, the present findings suggest that at least two mechanisms are involved in age-related differences in memory span. One mechanism, associated with a relatively linear decrease in memory span as a function of age, may differentially affect the storage of different types of information (e.g., sequences of digits vs. spatial locations). The other mechanism, evidenced by the curvilinear trend in Letter-Number Sequencing scores, may be tentatively attributed to a decline in executive aspects of working memory that becomes increasingly pronounced with age.     

REX

This article is based on personal experience, an experience of grief and now, years later, an understanding of its transformative power in one's life. It is a true story and began some 25 years ago. As those who have gone through grief themselves know, it never ceases, it only changes, moves through its own cycles and permeates one's life. It almost has a life of its own within one's daily tasks. Eventually, grief can become a subtle and profound force in the act of living that is no longer felt as loss but as gain. In this story, I wish to present the idea that the relationship between the grieved and the person who has died continues to evolve and grow after the death process.     

Global increase in response latencies by early middle age: complexity effects in individual performances

Ten young women (age 20 to 22 years) and 10 middle-aged women (age 36 to 44 years) served as subjects in choice reaction time, letter classification, and abstract matching-to-sample tasks. In each of seven conditions, the older group responded more slowly than the younger group. Age differences showed a complexity effect. That is, differences between the latencies of young and old subjects increased as the latency of the young subjects increased. Both linear and power functions accurately described the relation between the latencies of the middle-aged and young adult groups. This was true not only for the relation between average latencies but also for the relation between corresponding quartiles of latency distributions. Similar results were observed at the individual level: All middle-aged subjects showed complexity effects, and, for each middle-aged subject, the relation between her latencies and those of the average young adult was well described by linear and power functions. These findings indicate that age-related slowing is apparent by age 40, and that complexity effects are observable in individual performances. This slowing is global and not specific to particular tasks, as indicated by the fact that the latencies of older adults can be predicted directly from those of younger adults without regard to the nature of the task.     

Choice in transition: A comparison of melioration and the kinetic model

Transition-state choice behavior of pigeons was examined in two experiments designed to test predictions of melioration and the kinetic model. Both experiments began with an initial training condition during which subjects were maintained on concurrent variable-interval schedules. In Experiment 1, subjects were then exposed to concurrent variable-ratio schedules, whereas in Experiment 2, subjects were then exposed to concurrent extinction. Contrary to the predictions of melioration, but consistent with the kinetic model, acquisition of preference on concurrent variable-ratio schedules followed a negatively accelerated logistic trajectory, and preference remained stable in concurrent extinction. Predictions made by the kinetic model concerning rates of switching between alternatives were also supported.     

Intimacy, passion, and commitment in young romantic relationships: successfully measuring the triangular theory of love

The previous tests of the Triangular Theory of Love have proven problematic, specifically centered on measurement of the three components of Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment. Factor analysis of a new set of measures for 123 women and 110 men indicated support for three distinct factors. Sex differences indicated that women scored significantly higher on Intimacy and Commitment than men. Components were also significantly related to a measure of Relational Satisfaction. Regression analysis indicated that each component predicted significant variance for scores on Satisfaction.     

Individual and developmental differences in working memory across the life span

The effects of secondary tasks on verbal and spatial working memory were examined in multiple child, young adult, and older adult samples. Although memory span increased with age in the child samples and decreased with age in the adult samples, there was little evidence of systematic change in the magnitude of interference effects. Surprisingly, individuals who had larger memory spans when there was no secondary task showed greater interference effects than their age-mates. These findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that age and individual differences in working memory are due to differences in the ability to inhibit irrelevant information, at least as this hypothesis is currently formulated. Moreover, our results suggest that different mechanisms underlie developmental and individual differences in susceptibility to interference across the life span. A model is proposed in which memory span and processing speed both increase with development but are relatively independent abilities within age groups.     

Processing level and recognition: A search method for inducing alternative encodings of unrelated words

Twenty-four subjects viewed cards containing four words. In synonym orienting, half of the cards contained a synonym pair and half did not; in homophone orienting, half of the displays contained a homophone pair. The remaining two words in each display were used to index retention. During presentation of displays, subjects responded “yes” or “no” to indicate the presence or absence of a matching pair. Following presentation, a recognition test was administered. Half the items were tested early and half were tested late; within each test order, half the items appeared with context cues during testing and half appeared without. Results showed superior recognition (1) following semantic orienting, (2) for items tested early, (3) for items tested with context, and (4) for nonmatch displays requiring exhaustive item comparison. An Orienting by Test Cuing interaction showed that the presence of test cues improved recognition for homophone orienting items only. The interaction may have resulted from the lack of cuetarget associations and the reinstatement of the phonemic orienting set during the test.     

Freud's Reich, the psychiatric establishment, and the founding of the American Psychoanalytic Association: professional styles in conflict.

Freud's vision of a unified theory of the neuroses has foundered on lack of agreed methods for settling scientific disputes in the field of psychotherapy. Clashes in professional styles and formation of self-validating sub groups have been the dominant trend, exemplified by the founding of psychoanalytic organizations.