休谟关于“因果关系”的两个定义

鲁宾逊在最近哲学季刊上的一篇文章中认为，在休漠《人性论》一书中关于因果关系的两种定义并不是定义，而是一种根据经验的心理学论述即已经被确定的内容的定义。他的这个命题我不能接受，尽管他的那些次要的论题即（a）详细阐明了休漠所谓的“哲学关系”和“自然关系”，（）与史密斯相反，休漠支持因果关系的“统一性”观点确实是合理的。因此我希望（I）能够解释为什么鲁宾逊的主要命题不能真正说明休漠的两个因果关系定义，（巨）并证明他的结论并不是来自他自己的论述（巨）试图解释体漠关于“因果关系”的两个定义，这可以较真实地…     

增补的危险性

我们让人反复理解这一点:对生动话语的称赞忠诚于卢梭思想中的一个主题,这个主题和它的对立面结合并组织起来:对所谓完满话语始终越发怀疑。讲话过程中,在场获得承认的同时亦遭到拒绝。卢梭提出话语高于书写的谈话应该是,或本该是明明白白的。我们必须注意这种方式,注意在生动的谈话中把我们与在场联系起来的时刻。实际上,卢梭体会到直接的话语奇迹和话语本身内所隐蔽的东西,以无可比拟的敏锐性承认并分析了这个遮盖物,我们尝试通过语言的表示抓住所渴望的在场,但我们失掉了它。斯塔罗宾斯基在《活的眼睛》中     

论四种内在价值

价值论作为一门普遍的科学,它最基本的问题是理解内在价值的本质。这是它的核心问题。它的问题的关键就在于此。它的一些其他问题都与此相关,是其所产生、所结果、所包含,它的核心问题、它的结论就在于此。 一、有四种相区别的内在价值。它们如何相互依存、相互补充、相互交融,我将在稍后讨论。我的第一个任务是划清它们的区别,表明这四种中的每一个如何是基本的,通常是排他的,而且每一个都宣称是终极的。这些理论是相当著名的,尽管赞同其中一种的人们倾向于忽略和否认其他种。我使用了与它们的专门历史相关的名字,其中有的在知名度上略逊一筹。     

关于俄国哲学中的“俄国思想”

1993年3月在莫斯科召开了一次俄国哲学国际会议。大会是由克林顿领导的美国跨国研究所和俄罗斯科学院哲学所共同组织的。参加会议的有来自俄、美、英、法、德、意等国的著名俄国哲学史专家。本刊选译了俄《哲学问题》杂志1994年第1期上发表的部分会议材料:M.H.格罗莫夫的《俄国文化的永恒价值》,Ⅱ)K.斯坎兰的《俄国需要俄国哲学吗?》和A.瓦利茨基的《关于俄国哲学中的“俄国思想”》。 这组文章由贾泽林协助本刊选题。     

Group contingencies for group consequences in classroom management: a further analysis

The relative effects of rules, rules + feedback, and rules + feedback + group and individual consequences for appropriate behavior were investigated in three elementary classrooms during reading and mathematics periods. The consequences were individual and group praise, and group activities. The total intervention package (rules + feedback + group and individual consequences) was most effective in increasing appropriate behavior. Rules + feedback produced increased appropriate behavior in two of the three classrooms. Rules alone produced no change in classroom behavior. Maintenance of appropriate classroom behavior was noted approximately three weeks after the program ended. Teacher's correct use of praise was also maintained for two of the three teachers at levels generated during the total package condition.     

Feedback in behavior modification: an experimental analysis in two phobic cases

Two illustrations of single-case research are described in which an isolated therapeutic variable was sequentially introduced, withdrawn, and reintroduced while changes in a clinically relevant behavior were measured. A claustrophobic patient and a knife-phobic patient received graduated practice in facing their phobic stimuli; length of time the claustrophobic patient stayed in a small dark room per trial, and length of time the knife-phobic patient kept knife exposed per trial were measured. In both experiments, when feedback of these time scores was withdrawn, ongoing progress was retarded. Reinstatement of feedback led to renewed improvement. In Experiment 2, adding and removing contingent verbal praise against a constant background of precise feedback did not significantly alter rate of progress.     

Signalled reinforcement in differential-reinforcement-of-low rate schedules

At several fixed and variable minimum reinforced interresponse times, a stimulus was added to differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedules to signal the availability or nonavailability of reinforcement. As the minimum reinforced interresponse time increased, the rate of unreinforced responding decreased. Changing from fixed to variable minimum interresponse time in the basic differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule further decreased the rate of unreinforced responding. Both effects were to some degree reversible. For fixed minimum reinforced interresponse times of 30 sec or shorter, most unreinforced responses terminated interresponse times just short of that required for reinforcement. The minimum reinforced interresponse time and the number of short response latencies (≤0.5 sec) to the onset of the signal were negatively correlated. Both of these analyses suggested that at values of 30 sec or shorter, the subjects discriminated the availability of the reinforcer more on the basis of time than on the basis of presence or absence of the signal.     

普列汉诺夫著作中的哲学史问题

在普列汉诺夫的遗著中,关于哲学史问题的著作和言论有着重大的意义。在哲学史方面普列汉诺夫所感到兴趣的问题是非常广泛的;它包括人类思想史的一个巨大领域——从原始社会万物有灵观念的发生直到二十世纪的各种资产阶级哲学学说(新康德主义、马赫主义、实用主义、克罗齐主义、马萨列克主义以及其它等等)。普列汉诺夫还研究了各种各样的社会思潮——从亚里士多德的观点直到帝国主义资产阶级的社会学“理论”(施塔莫勒、司徒卢威以及其他等等)。     

法国哲学的现状和未来

让我们看一看哈维(Havet)先生所讲的最重要趋势的结果怎样,首先看他所谓“柏格森的精神实在论”的结果怎样。虽然这种哲学对于心灵解放有很大的贡献,但我们也应该考虑到它对于一些重大问题已经下了明确的结论,而这些结论是一个希望被称做柏格森学派的人所不得不采纳的。因此,严格说来,柏格森的门人是不多的。有几本专为研究柏格森哲学而写的重要著作;我们现在只提出其中的两本来。狄包德(Thibaudet)著的“论柏格森主义”     

法国哲学的全景

天真的读者以为在一部百科全书里一定可以找到一系列的条文,每一条规定一个问题的状况,以供专家以外的“老实人”之用。可是“法国百科全书”第19卷(哲学)却几乎仅仅集合了一些不同的立场,和彼此之间绝对不能调和的主张:每一个哲学家把他的哲学在只有几百的篇幅里予以阐明,这几页文字通常是妄自尊大的,但也却是灿烂可观。所谓“妄自尊大”是因为每一个哲学家自信是唯一在事实上掌握着按法理讲可以作为普遍真理的人。所谓“灿烂可观”是因为待剥掉逻辑外壳之后,每一个体系就表现为一个富有诱惑性而缺少严肃性的世界的幻影。