Uncovering mental representations with Markov chain Monte Carlo

A key challenge for cognitive psychology is the investigation of mental representations, such as object categories, subjective probabilities, choice utilities, and memory traces. In many cases, these representations can be expressed as a non-negative function defined over a set of objects. We present a behavioral method for estimating these functions. Our approach uses people as components of a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm, a sophisticated sampling method originally developed in statistical physics. Experiments 1 and 2 verified the MCMC method by training participants on various category structures and then recovering those structures. Experiment 3 demonstrated that the MCMC method can be used estimate the structures of the real-world animal shape categories of giraffes, horses, dogs, and cats. Experiment 4 combined the MCMC method with multidimensional scaling to demonstrate how different accounts of the structure of categories, such as prototype and exemplar models, can be tested, producing samples from the categories of apples, oranges, and grapes.     

Demographic factors and playing variables in online computer gaming.

Despite the growing popularity of online game playing, there has been no primary survey of its players. Therefore, an online questionnaire survey was used to examine basic demographic factors of online computer game players who played the popular online game Everquest (i.e., gender, age, marital status, nationality, education level, occupation). The survey also examined playing frequency (i.e., amount of time spent playing the game a week), playing history (i.e., how long they had been playing the game, who they played the game with, whether they had ever gender swapped their game character), the favorite and least favorite aspects of playing the game, and what they sacrifice (if anything) to play the game. Results showed that 81% of online game players were male, and that the mean age of players was 27.9 years of age. For many players, the social aspects of the game were the most important factor in playing. A small minority of players appear to play excessively (over 80 h a week), and results suggest that a small minority sacrifice important activities in order to play (e.g., sleep, time with family and/or partner, work, or schooling).     

Finding the traces of behavioral and cognitive processes in big data and naturally occurring datasets

Today, people generate and store more data than ever before as they interact with both real and virtual environments. These digital traces of behavior and cognition offer cognitive scientists and psychologists an unprecedented opportunity to test theories outside the laboratory. Despite general excitement about big data and naturally occurring datasets among researchers, three “gaps” stand in the way of their wider adoption in theory-driven research: the imagination gap, the skills gap, and the culture gap. We outline an approach to bridging these three gaps while respecting our responsibilities to the public as participants in and consumers of the resulting research. To that end, we introduce Data on the Mind (http://www.dataonthemind.org), a community-focused initiative aimed at meeting the unprecedented challenges and opportunities of theory-driven research with big data and naturally occurring datasets. We argue that big data and naturally occurring datasets are most powerfully used to supplement—not supplant—traditional experimental paradigms in order to understand human behavior and cognition, and we highlight emerging ethical issues related to the collection, sharing, and use of these powerful datasets.     

Affect and the computer game player: the effect of gender, personality, and game reinforcement structure on affective responses to computer game-play.

Previous research on computer games has tended to concentrate on their more negative effects (e.g., addiction, increased aggression). This study departs from the traditional clinical and social learning explanations for these behavioral phenomena and examines the effect of personality, in-game reinforcement characteristics, gender, and skill on the emotional state of the game-player. Results demonstrated that in-game reinforcement characteristics and skill significantly effect a number of affective measures (most notably excitement and frustration). The implications of the impact of game-play on affect are discussed with reference to the concepts of "addiction" and "aggression."     

Childhood play and adolescent leisure preferences: Associations with gender typing and the presence of siblings

Childhood play and adolescent leisure preferences were solicited from a sample of 168 predominately white undergraduate students, who also completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974) and provided ratings of the amount of time spent in play and leisure with same- and opposite-sex siblings. Higher Femininity (F) scores were found among those females who gave higher ratings of interaction with female siblings. The BSRI measures were also predicted by play and leisure preferences for strongly gender-stereotyped activities. Amount of interaction with same- and opposite-sex siblings was associated with activity preferences for both sexes. There was evidence of more sex-stereotyped preferences being given by those with same sex siblings and fewer by those with opposite sex siblings. The results are discussed in terms of the possible influences of siblings upon play and leisure preferences and the differing developmental pathways of male and female sex roles.     

Psychology of communication technology use in the workplace.

It is generally understood that employees in organizations misuse technology in specific ways--by sending and receiving personal email, frequenting chat rooms, and using the Web for non-work-related reasons. However, little research has focused on what motivates this type of use. The present study extends existing communication technology and organizational literatures by going beyond usage assessments and examining how an employee's psychological state influences motivations for non-work-related communication technology use during company time.     

Online guidance, advice, and support for problem gamblers and concerned relatives and friends: an evaluation of the GamAid pilot service

The paper reports one of the first ever studies to evaluate the effectiveness of an online help and guidance service for problem gamblers. The evaluation utilised a mixed methods design in order to examine both primary and secondary data relating to the client experience. In addition, the researchers posed as problem gamblers in order to obtain first-hand experience of how the service works in practice. A total of 80 participants completed an online evaluation questionnaire, and secondary data were gathered from 413 distinct clients who contacted an advisor. It was concluded that the service appears to be one of the few genuinely international guidance and 'counselling' services available to problem gamblers. Gambling online was the most preferred form of gambling and gambling location of GamAid clients. The service also appears to be favoured by females more than any other comparable service. Overall, the vast majority of clients were very positive about their experience of using GamAid, although there were some minor technical difficulties. In light of the findings, the utility of using online guidance and therapeutic services is discussed.     

Illness perception in individuals with atopic dermatitis

Accumulating evidence suggests that in order to understand and respond to the difficulties presented by illness, patients construct their own "common sense" cognitive model of illness. This study set out to examine self-help group members, and students' beliefs about their atopic dermatitis (AD) and to investigate their relationship with symptom report and clinical and demographic variables. A total of 284 participants with AD undertook a self-assessment of their disease severity and completed the Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire. The most frequent symptoms associated with AD were itching, sleep difficulties and pain. The most commonly reported triggers of AD were stress, hereditary factors and emotional state. Over 75% of participants believed that their condition would be chronic. Self-help group members reported more significant consequences of the condition, a greater emotional impact, while the student group felt they had more personal control of their AD. Multiple regression analyses indicated that illness beliefs, in particular perceived consequences associated with AD and personal control, accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in emotional response to the condition. This study suggests that participants' beliefs and emotional response are more strongly associated with the meaning they ascribe to their condition rather than its severity.     

Disturbed memory and amnesia related to intensive care

Patients, when admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU), have one thing in common: their illness is life-threatening. Patients may remain on ICU in a critical condition, needing support with their breathing, circulation, and/or kidneys for varying lengths of time, from days to weeks. During that time the patients will receive sedative and analgesic drugs to ensure compliance with artificial ventilation. Patients recovering from critical illness frequently have little or no recall of their period in ICU, or remember nightmare, hallucinations, or paranoid delusions. The nature, extent and reason for these difficulties, have been under-reported and consequently our purpose was to conduct a review of memory problems experienced by ICU patients. A systematic literature review of computer databases (Medline, PsycLit, and CINAHL) identified 25 relevant papers. In addition, other relevant articles were obtained, citation lists and associated articles retrieved. Due to lack of research on processes underlying memory problems in ICU patients all articles that introduced an insight into possible mechanisms were included in the review. There seem to be two possible processes contributing to memory problems in ICU patients. First the illness and treatment may have a general dampening effect on memory. Delirium and sleep disturbance are both common in ICU patients. Delirium can result in a profound amnesia for the period of confusion. Sleep deprivation exacerbates the confusional state. Slow wave sleep is important for the consolidation of episodic memories. Treatment administered to patients in ICU can have effects on memory. Opiates, benzodiazepines, sedative drugs such as propofol, adrenaline, and corticosteroids can all influence memory. In addition, the withdrawal of drugs, such as benzodiazepines, can cause profound withdrawal reactions, which may contribute to delirium. Second, we hypothesise that there is a process that affects memory negatively for external events but enhances memory for internal events. The physical constraints and social isolation experienced by ICU patients and the life-threatening nature of the illness may increase the experience of hypnagogic hallucinations. Attentional shift during hypnagogic images from external stimuli to internally generated images would explain why ICU patients have such poor recall of external ICU events, but can clearly remember hallucinations and nightmares. Patients describe these memories as being very vivid and this is explored in terms of flashbulb memory formation. The absence of memories for real events on ICU can result in ICU patients remembering paranoid delusions of staff trying to kill them, with little information to reject these vivid memories as unreal. This has implications for patients' future psychological health.