Formation and use of covariation assessments in the real world

In this study we examined covariation assessments made using real‐world information held by individual participants about an important preventive health behaviour: receiving an influenza vaccine (‘flu shot’). Four hundred and seventy‐seven healthy adult participants completed a questionnaire, indicating both their personal experience and vicarious experience (knowledge of other people's experiences) with the flu shot and the flu. Additionally, participants provided a covariation assessment by indicating how effective they thought the flu shot is in preventing the flu. We examined whether the experience information was related to the covariation assessment, and whether it in turn was related to the decision to receive a flu shot. Our results indicated that people use a simple intuitive strategy to combine their personal experience information. For vicarious experience information, we found evidence for use of a normative strategy, as well as simpler intuitive strategies. Consistent with our hypothesis, both types of experience information were associated with the effectiveness judgement, which was subsequently related to the decision to obtain a flu shot. Practical applications of these findings are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impact of situational legitimacy and assertiveness-related anxiety/discomfort on motivation and ability to generate effective criticism responses

This study compares the motivation and the quality of criticism responses of 697 undergraduates who were divided into three levels of situation legitimacy (high, moderate, and low) and two levels (top versus bottom 40 percent) of anxiety related to previous generalized assertiveness behaviours. The impact of gender was also studied. The results showed the legitimacy of the situation for a critical response (preassessed with peer hold-out groups) significantly affected participants' motivation to criticize as well as the quality of their critical responses, notwithstanding the poor quality of all criticism responses. Anxiety related to previous global assertiveness was related to high motivation but not to quality of criticism responses. There were no gender effects. Results are interpreted within an avoidance learning paradigm wherein the connotative meaning of criticism is incongruent with harmonious long-term relationships so that it is suppressed until virtually forced by the specifics of highly legitimate situations.     

Psychological Interventions and Genetic Testing: Facilitating Informed Decisions About BRCA1/2 Cancer Susceptibility

Genetic testing for inherited cancer susceptibility, based on the recently identified. BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, will soon be available on a large scale. However, at present, genetic test results do not lead to clearly indicated diagnostic or preventive measures, and the nature of the psychological impact of BRCA1/2 testing is still largely unknown. This uncertainty, combined with preliminary evidence suggesting significant individual differences in reactions to genetic susceptibility feedback, constitutes a unique challenge for any individual contemplating such testing. We outline the nature of this challenge and then propose an intervention strategy designed to help individuals make deeply processed and psychologically well-informed decisions with regard to their genetic susceptibility. The intervention is guided by recent research findings and theory on the cognitive–emotional processing of cancer-risk information. Specifically, the goal is to prepare the individual for genetic testing by (1) cognitively and emotionally activating, or preliving, the individual's potential reactions to testing feedback; (2) facilitating accurate appraisal of the individual's cognitive–emotional reactions; and (3) enabling the individual to process these reactions through the use of well-established clinical techniques.     

Normal versus deviant children

The present study investigated differences between referred and nonreferred children and their families on the basis of home and clinic observations and parent questionnaires. Subjects were 28 families with children between 4 and 8 years of age who had been referred to a clinic for actingout behavior and 28 nonreferred controls matched on several variables. Home observation results indicated that referred children showed significantly more deviant behavior and less prosocial behavior than nonreferred children and that their parents emitted more negative and commanding behavior in contrast to the control group. Systematic observation in the clinic revealed significant differences only in parent negativeness and number of commands. Finally, all five factors of the parent attitude questionnaire yielded large and significant differences between groups. There was considerable overlap between groups on all behavior variables but less overlap on the parent attitude measure. Results from a stepwise discriminant analysis classified 90% of referred children and 90% of nonreferred children correctly on the basis of the parent attitude variable alone. Taken together, these results suggest that child behavior is not always the critical variable in referral and stress the importance of multiple assessment procedures for child-family problems when children are referred for treatment.This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH 19633. The authors would like to express their appreciation to Sheila Eyberg and Orin Bolstad, who assisted in the completion of various aspects of this work.     

Similarity and reluctance to trade

Previous research has shown that after decision makers are endowed with an object, they are reluctant to trade it for an alternative item. This endowment effect can be explained by loss aversion, the tendency to weight losses more heavily than gains. Consequently, there is no reluctance to trade when no true loss is involved. Four studies investigated whether reluctance to trade declines when the trade involves less of a loss—specifically, when one item is traded for another very similar item. Three experiments did not reveal a relation between willingness to trade and the similarity between the two items being traded. A fourth experiment, however, indicated that subjects were quite willing to trade for an identical item, less willing to trade for a similar item, and even less willing to trade for a dissimilar item. Thus, reluctance to trade decreased as the similarity between the endowment and the alternative increased. This result suggests that loss aversion is a function not only of the item being lost but also of the trade itself—that is, of the relation between the two items being traded. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lessons Learned from the Parents Matter! Program

We present a discussion of some of the lessons the investigators learned during the development and implementation phases of the Parents Matter! Program (PMP). Lessons were learned that are relevant to various groups involved in large scale, multi-site, community-based intervention studies: investigators, community leaders, community members, project staff, and participants. Specific lessons learned include: (1) forge collaboration early: (2) maintain communication; (3) clearly delineate policies and procedures; and (4) develop proactive strategies. We also include a list of important questions to consider when contemplating similar projects.     

Personal, Medical, and Healthcare Utilization Among Homeless Veterans Served by Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Veteran Facilities

This study assessed differences in personal, medical, and health care utilization characteristics of homeless veterans living in metropolitan versus nonmetropolitan environments. Data were obtained from a Veterans Health Administration (VHA) network sample of homeless veterans. Chi-square tests were used to assess differences in demographics, military history, living situation, medical history, employment status, and health care utilization. Moderator analyses determined whether predictors of health care utilization varied by metropolitan status. Of 3,595 respondents, 60% were residing in metropolitan areas. Age, sex, and marital status were similar between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan homeless. Metropolitan homeless were less likely to receive public financial support or to be employed, to have at least one medical problem, one psychiatric problem, or current alcohol dependency, but more likely to be homeless longer. Of the 52% of the sample who used VHA care in the last 6 months, 53% were metropolitan versus 49% nonmetropolitan (p = .01). Metropolitan status predicted at least one VHA visit within the prior 6 months (OR:1.3, CI:1.1, 1.6). Significant differences occur in the personal, medical, and health care utilization characteristics of homeless veterans in metropolitan versus nonmetropolitan areas.     

Sensitivity and specificity of depression questionnaires in a college-age sample

The authors evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; A. T. Beck, R. A. Steer, & G. K. Brown, 1996) and Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CESD; L. S. Radloff, 1977) questionnaires for a college-student sample. Results indicate that the BDI-II and CES-D evidenced satisfactory levels of specificity and positive predictive value for current, past-year, and lifetime depressive disorder ratings on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Researchers can use the questionnaires as valid initial screens in a two-stage process designed to identify individuals meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (American Psychiatic Association) criteria for depressive disorders. However, if the questionnaires are the only method used to select participants, the resulting sample may include a number of false positives.     

Longitudinal associations among quality of life and its predictors in patients treated for prostate cancer: the moderating role of age

This study examined moderating effects of age on longitudinal associations among quality of life (QOL) and its demographic (e.g., age), clinical [e.g., prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level], and affective and cognitive predictors (i.e., distress, worries about recurrence, decisional regret, subjective life expectancy) in prostate cancer patients treated with external beam radiation (N = 391). Demographic and clinical characteristics were assessed at diagnosis, affective and cognitive variables at 6 months after diagnosis, and QOL at 12 months after diagnosis. Multiple-group analyses showed that among younger patients (< or =68 years old, n = 199), lower levels of decisional regret were associated with better functional QOL, and lower Gleason scores and PSA levels were associated with lower levels of distress and longer expected survival time, respectively. Being employed was related to higher levels of functional QOL and frequent worries about recurrence. Among older patients (>68 years old, n = 192), lower levels of distress were associated with higher levels of functional QOL, and longer expected survival time was associated with better functional and physical QOL.