ON THE DANGERS OF AVERAGING ACROSS SUBJECTS WHEN USING MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OR THE SIMILARITY-CHOICE MODEL

Abstract— When ratings of judged similarity or frequencies of stimulus identification are averaged across subjects, the psychological structure of the data is fundamentally changed. Regardless of the structure of the individual-subject data, the averaged similarity data will likely be well fit by a standard multidimensional scaling model, and the averaged identification data will likely be well fit by the similarity-choice model. In fact, both models often provide excellent fits to averaged data, even if they fail to fit the data of each individual subject. Thus, a good fit of either model to averaged data cannot be taken as evidence that the model describes the psychological structure that characterizes individual subjects. We hypothesize that these effects are due to the increased symmetry that is a mathematical consequence of the averaging operation.     

Graduate Training of Counselors in the Addictions: A Study of CACREP-Approved Programs

Results are reported from a survey of counselor education programs approved by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). The survey focused on counselor training in the addictions.     

Telling Jokes That Disparage Social Groups: Effects on the Joke Teller's Stereotypes1

An experiment tested whether or not reciting disparaging humor about a disadvantaged group affects joke tellers' stereotypes of the group. In this experiment, we manipulated whether participants recited humor that disparaged Newfoundlanders, who are a relatively disadvantaged group in Canada, or nondisparaging humor. We then asked participants to complete a measure of their stereotypes and attitudes toward Newfoundlanders. Results indicated that participants who recited disparaging humor subsequently reported more negative stereotypes of Newfoundlanders than did participants who recited nondisparaging humor. Attitudes toward Newfoundlanders were not affected by the manipulation. Practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Media Effects and Communication Bias in Diverse Groups

This paper extends research on factors influencing effective communication in diverse groups. The effects of social group membership on attention and influence were examined using 17 groups of three men and three women. Each group discussed a controversial topic face-to-face or using either an anonymous or an identified group support system environment. Social group membership biased both attention and influence; these effects were eliminated when discussions were conducted electronically—even when social group membership of participants was identifiable in the electronic media.     

White Americans' Attitudes Toward Asian Americans in Social Situations: An Empirical Examination of Potential Stereotypes,Bias, and Prejudice

The purpose of this study was to investigate the stereotypical attitudes of college students toward a variety of social situations involving Asian Americans. The authors were also interested in the effects of differential labeling of Asian Americans on the attitudes held toward them (i.e., “Asian” versus “Oriental”).     

EVALUATION OF CLIENT PREFERENCE FOR FUNCTION-BASED TREATMENT PACKAGES

Functional communication training (FCT) and noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) are commonly prescribed treatments that are based on the results of a functional analysis. Both treatments involve delivery of the reinforcer that is responsible for the maintenance of destructive behavior. One major difference between the two treatment procedures is that client responding determines reinforcement delivery with FCT (e.g., reinforcement of communication is delivered on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule) but not with NCR (e.g., reinforcement is delivered on a fixed-time 30-s schedule). In the current investigation, FCT and NCR were equally effective in reducing 2 participants' destructive behavior that was sensitive to attention as reinforcement. After the treatment analysis, the participants' relative preference for each treatment was evaluated using a modified concurrent-chains procedure. Both participants demonstrated a preference for the FCT procedure. The results are discussed in terms of treatment efficacy and preference for control over when reinforcement is delivered. In addition, a method is demonstrated in which clients with developmental disabilities can participate in selecting treatments that are designed to reduce their destructive behavior.     

Cerebral lateralization of visual stimulus recognition in stutterers and fluent speakers

Cerebral lateralization of stutterers and nonstutterers was assessed in terms of choice reaction times to stimuli presented to either the left or right visual hemifield on letter recognition and figure recognition tasks. Reaction times on both tasks were determined before and after a behavioral speech therapy program. Stutterers demonstrated a significant reduction in mean reaction times in the letter recognition task over the course of the therapy program. This change differed significantly from that obtained from stutterers in the figure recognition task. The stutterers' responses were in contrast to the responses of the nonstutterers, who showed no reduction in mean reaction times for the letter or figure recognition tasks. The results were discussed in terms of alterations in aspects of central nervous system processing as a result of participation in the behavioral speech therapy.     

Incest: The four letter word. A theological approach to therapy

As those of us in the ministry reach out to counsel in the community, we sooner or later encounter the problem of incest. This article poses the question of possible clergy reluctance to treatment of the incest family. It then provides various theological issues present in incest and attempts to demonstrate the unique contribution brought to such therapy by the theological perspective.Mr. Smith is a pastoral counselor in private practice and may be addressed at 2301 Fifth Ave., Fort Worth, Texas 76110.     

Misattribution of arousal and attraction: Effects of salience of explanations for arousal

Based on previous research demonstrating that salience of a plausible cause increases the likelihood of causal attribution (S. E. Taylor & S. T. Fiske, in J. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 11), New York: Academic Press, 1978) it was predicted that salience of plausible causes of arousal would affect romantic attraction. Male subjects were differentially aroused by running in place. Aroused subjects were particularly likely to be attracted to an attractive female confederate if they expected to meet her (high salience of confederate) and if cues associated with the running in place were minimized (low salience of exercise). Though results are consistent with a misatribution of arousal hypothesis, it is suggested that emotion schemata are a potentially more useful explanation.