Switching attention within and between categories: Evidence for intracategory inhibition

In a variation of the Posner and Snyder (1975b) paradigm, subjects made speeded “same” or “different” responses to pairs of digits or letters on the basis of name identity (Experiment 1) or physical identity (Experiment 2). Each target pair was preceded by an informative (letter or digit) or noninformative (plus-sign) warning signal. The letter or digit represented by an informative warning signal had a high probability of appearing in the subsequent target pair (expected condition). On trials in which the expected stimulus did not appear in the target pair, the target pair belonged with equal probability to either the same category (either letters or digits) as the expected stimulus or to the opposite category (unexpected-similar and unexpected-opposite conditions, respectively). The pattern of “benefits” and “costs” of attentional expectancy found by Posner and Snyder for “same” responses was replicated: Subjects were faster and more accurate in the expected condition than in the neutral (uninformative warning signal) condition, but slower and less accurate in the unexpected conditions. Present theoretical interest concerns “same” response times and accuracy for the two unexpected conditions. Under instructions emphasizing accuracy as well as speed (Experiments 1 and 2), performance was worse in the unexpected-similar condition than in the unexpected-opposite condition. Only when instructions deemphasized accuracy (Experiment 2) was performance better in the unexpected-similar condition than in the unexpected-opposite condition. The fact that subjects may have more difficulty switching attention within a category than between categories (at least when instructions emphasize accuracy as well as speed) contrasts sharply with current theoretical emphasis on intracategorical facilitation effects in the priming paradigm. The results are interpreted within the framework of a model of attention (Keele & Neill, 1978) in which the activation of associates to the focus of attention is actively and optionally suppressed so as to reduce present or potential interference with the focal information processing.     

Levels of processing in disruptive effects of prior information

Under certain conditions, advance information about possible letter alternatives may depress recognition of single tachistoscopically presented letters followed by a pattern mask. Neill and Walling (1981) found that this “before-disruption effect” occurred specifically when alternatives were featurally similar. In contrast, Experiment 1 of the present study found that precuing facilitated identification of unfamiliar stimuli composed of letterlike features, particularly when alternatives differed in only one critical feature. Contrary to Smith, Haviland, Reder, Brownell, and Adams (1976), composition of letterlike features is therefore not sufficient to produce the before-disruption effect. The before-disruption effect appears to occur when there is opportunity to represent the stimulus at a deeper (i.e., name) level, but foreknowledge of a critical distinguishing feature biases processing instead toward the level of physical features. Congruent with this analysis, Experiment 2 found the before-disruption effect for letters to be attenuated when targets were unpredictably upper- and lowercase, necessitating name-level matching to the alternatives. Experiment 3 found the superior identification of unprecued letters to be paradoxically associated with inferior target detection, as indicated by concurrent presence/absence judgments. In addition, identification of unprecued letters, but not precued letters, was significantly above chance on trials in which overt target detection failed to occur. The results are consistent with recent suggestions that pattern masking does not terminate perceptual processing, but rather interferes with conscious awareness of completed visual analysis.     

The effect of meaningfulness and integrative processing in expressive writing on positive and negative affect and life satisfaction

Meaningfulness and integrative processing of expressive writing may influence the effect of expressive writing. Participants completed measures of positive affect, negative affect and life satisfaction before and after an expressive writing intervention. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four expressive writing instruction conditions, which combined higher and lower levels of meaning and integrative processing instructions. Meaningfulness and integrative processing instructions had significant effects in increasing positive affect and there was a significant interaction between meaningfulness instructions and integrative processing instructions; participants in the high meaningfulness and high integrative processing instruction condition showed the greatest increase in positive affect. Meaningfulness had a significant effect in decreasing negative affect. The intervention did not influence life satisfaction. Both meaningfulness and integrative processing instructions led to more self-reported personal meaningfulness of the writing and more cognitive, emotional, behavioural and situational changes. More self-reported meaningfulness of the writing and more cognitive, emotional, behavioural and situational changes made as a result of the writing were in turn associated with greater increases in positive affect. The results of the study affirm the importance of meaningfulness and processing in expressive writing and potentially provide information regarding how to increase the effectiveness of expressive writing.     

Selective and sustained attention in children with spina bifida myelomeningocele

This study examined memory functioning in children and adolescents with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (DS; velocardiofacial syndrome). An overall verbal better than nonverbal memory pattern was evident on the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL), with children with 22q11.2 DS performing significantly below their siblings and children with low average IQ but similar to children with autism on facial memory. Children with 22q11 DS also performed significantly below their siblings on tests of verbal working memory. Children with autism performed significantly poorer than the siblings of children with 22q11.2 DS only on their recall of stories. Delayed recall was significantly poorer in children with 22q11.2 DS and children with autism, compared to sibling controls. Although there were no significant group differences on tests of multiple trial verbal or visual learning, a relative weakness was noted with multiple trial visual learning in children with 22q11.2 DS and their siblings, suggesting that an alternative or interactive factor other than the deletion may account for the relatively better verbal compared to nonverbal memory abilities. Deficits in facial memory in children with both 22q11.2 DS and autism suggest disruptions in ventral temporal pathways such as between fusiform gyrus and parahippocampal/hippocampal regions whereas deficits in verbal working memory in children with 22q11.2 DS implicates dorsolateral prefrontal regions, both intimating aberrant white matter pathways.     

Neuropsychological Findings in Two Children Diagnosed with Hamartoses: Evidence of a NLD Phenotypic Profile

Hamartoses (HM) are defined as disorders involving nonneoplastic tissue overgrowth. Studies have examined the neuropsychological profiles of children with common HM, such as neurofibromatosis type 1. Limited information is known regarding neuropsychological profiles of rare HM such as Osteochondromatosis Syndrome (OS) and Klippel-Trenaunay Syndrome (KTS). The current investigation is, to our knowledge, the first attempt to define the cognitive phenotypes in two boys with OS and KTS. Results revealed significantly greater impairments involving sensorimotor and visuospatial skills, while verbal memory and language skills appeared relatively preserved. Significant neurobehavioral problems and marked social difficulties were evident. These findings suggest that these syndromes are on a Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD) continuum, with varying degrees of severity.     

The impact of “non-targeted traits” on personality test faking,hiring, and workplace deviance

Evidence suggests that job applicants often “fake” on pre-employment personality tests by attempting to portray an exceedingly desirable impression in order to improve the likelihood of being selected. In the current research we shed light on the personality characteristics of those individuals who seem most likely to engage in faking. We refer to these personality variables as non-targeted traits when they are not directly targeted by the organization’s pre-employment personality test. These traits, however, may have an influence on targeted scores used for employment decision making through their effect on faking. Findings suggest that individuals will be more likely to be hired if they are low on non-targeted traits including Honesty–Humility, Integrity, and Morality, and high on Risk Taking. Such individuals also reported higher levels of workplace deviance in their current jobs. Thus, it seems that individuals low on Honesty–Humility, Integrity, and Morality, and individuals high on Risk Taking, may be most likely to engage in personality test faking, be hired, and participate in workplace deviant behaviors if these traits are not directly targeted in selection.     

Dissociative effects of phonological vs. semantic associates on recognition memory in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm

Using a variation of the Deese/Roediger–McDermott paradigm in four experiments, we examined hit rate, false alarm rate, and memory discriminability (d′) for critical items (e.g., sleep) after their semantic associates (e.g., dream, rest, and awake), phonological associates (e.g., bleep, sheep, and cheap) or unrelated items were studied. Replicating previous research (e.g., Neely & Tse, 2007), d′ was lower for critical items than for yoked associates in semantic lists. However, d′ was higher for critical items than for yoked associates in phonological lists, even when the same critical items were used for these two list types. The memory discriminability of critical items was enhanced by phonological lists via a larger increase in their hit rates than in their false alarm rates, relative to the same critical items in lists of unrelated words. These findings (a) could not be fully accounted for by the activation-based theories proposed in the false memory literature, and (b) may suggest that the memory discriminabilities of semantic and phonological lists are modulated by two distinct activation mechanisms.