Recall accuracy and illusory memories: when more is less

In two experiments it was revealed that manipulations that increased recall of studied list items also increased false recall of theme-related, critical nonpresented words. In Experiment 1 subjects listened to a series of short word lists, each containing items associatively related to a theme, while engaging in either semantic or nonsemantic processing. On an immediate free recall test semantic processors demonstrated greater correct recall as well as more illusory memories of critical nonpresented items than nonsemantic processors. In Experiment 2, the short study lists were combined to form longer lists that were presented either blocked by theme or in a random presentation order. Retention interval was also varied as participants were tested either immediately, one week after, or three weeks after the study phase. Presenting the target items in a blocked, as opposed to random, format increased recall accuracy, but this was at the expense of a higher intrusion rate for theme-consistent items. Interestingly, the level of false memories was not affected by retention interval even though typical decrements in the recall of study items were observed over time. The results of these experiments highlight the persistence of the false memory effect, as well as pointing to several factors, primarily semantic processing, that may lead to the creation of false memories. Interpretations are offered within the theoretical frameworks of source monitoring and fuzzy trace theory.     

Ministers evaluate their training in marriage counseling

Summary The results of the study described above have certain implications for planning future training programs. Teaching in this particular field must be primarily learner centered, rather than subject centered. This is borne out by the choices of the respondents that indicate the importance of understanding of the self, and own attitudes, biases, and feelings as they affect the counselor's capacity within the helping relationship; and the emphasis placed upon the strongly teacher-learner-centered method—supervision—as of primary importance. Thus, supervision, which offers support and understanding to the trainee as he struggles to integrate new knowledge and to develop increased sensitivity to others, greater flexibility, and skill, assumes a tremendously important part of the total training experience. This has implications for the training center in relation to the quality and quantity of supervision available to the training person.The question of insufficient time may have psychological as well as practical implications. The importance of a realistic schedule is ovious. The other aspect of this question may have to do with integration and need for time in assimilating a learning experience that requires change and necessarily involves strongly charged affective components. This raises the question of how to maintain a balance between the inevitable anxiety aroused in a new situation, which motivates learning, and excessive anxiety, which may impede progress if the individual becomes more involved in coping with himself than in learning.The need for more training in family-life education is also indicated.     

The linkages of cognitive processes, stress propensity, affect, and strain: experimental test of a cognitive model of the stress response

This research examined a model of the stress response that includes cognitive-affective stress propensity, cognitive-affective processes, experienced affective reactions, subjective stress, and strain constructs. Using partial least squares analysis, this model was found to provide a good fit with the data. Moderated multiple regression analyses found support for the hypothesized moderating effects of individual stress propensity on the relationships of stressors with cognitive-affective processes. The research and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Telemetric monitoring in the behavior sciences

This article reviews recent advances in telemetrics, a class of wireless information systems technology that can collect and transmit a wide variety of behavioral and environmental data remotely. Telemetrics include wearable computers that weave on-body sensors into articles of clothing, ubiquitous computers that embed sensors and transmitters seamlessly into the environment, and handheld devices, such as mobile phones and personal digital assistants, that can record cognitive and affective states. Examples of telemetric applications are provided to illustrate how this technology has been used in the behavioral sciences to unobtrusively and repeatedly gather physiological, behavioral, environmental, cognitive, and affective data in natural settings. Special issues relating to privacy and confidentiality, practical considerations, and statistical and measurement challenges when telemetrics are used are also discussed.     

Transactional Leadership Revisited: Self–Other Agreement and Its Consequences

In a field study involving 209 leader–follower dyads, we examined leader–follower agreement regarding perceptions of the leaders' behavior style and follower outcomes of performance, organizational citizenship behavior, affective commitment, and trust in the leader. Using the self–other agreement paradigm, we found that agreement about a leader's style as transactional was positively related to these outcomes, whereas there was no relationship between agreement about a leader's transformational style and any of the outcomes. These findings support our view that a shared interpretation of the leader's transactional behavior is essential for positive follower outcomes, and may also be a necessary precondition for the effective use of transformational leader behavior. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.     

The relative influence of advice from human experts and statistical methods on forecast adjustments

Decision makers and forecasters often receive advice from different sources including human experts and statistical methods. This research examines, in the context of stock price forecasting, how the apparent source of the advice affects the attention that is paid to it when the mode of delivery of the advice is identical for both sources. In Study 1, two groups of participants were given the same advised point and interval forecasts. One group was told that these were the advice of a human expert and the other that they were generated by a statistical forecasting method. The participants were then asked to adjust forecasts they had previously made in light of this advice. While in both cases the advice led to improved point forecast accuracy and better calibration of the prediction intervals, the advice which apparently emanated from a statistical method was discounted much more severely. In Study 2, participants were provided with advice from two sources. When the participants were told that both sources were either human experts or both were statistical methods, the apparent statistical‐based advice had the same influence on the adjusted estimates as the advice that appeared to come from a human expert. However when the apparent sources of advice were different, much greater attention was paid to the advice that apparently came from a human expert. Theories of advice utilization are used to identify why the advice of a human expert is likely to be preferred to advice from a statistical method. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An in-depth observational study of an acute psychiatric ward: combining the psychodynamic observational method with thematic analysis to develop understanding of ward culture

The question of how to create benign organisational cultures in health care is a topic of particular concern in the UK at the present time. The current study aimed to further understanding of complex health care cultures in the National Health Service (NHS), with a focus on an acute adult in-patient psychiatric ward. The psychoanalytic observational method was used for this purpose. The first author conducted six-hour long observation sessions on the ward at weekly intervals, writing detailed process recordings after each observation to take to a supervision group for discussion. The six presentations of observational material and the responses of the supervision group were audiotaped and transcribed. These data were then analysed thematically. The picture that emerged was of a fragile ward environment in which staff appeared fearful of engagement with patients, there was a sense of confusion regarding roles and decision-making processes, and the nursing team felt burdened by responsibility, isolated and anxious about criticism from outside. Contemporary developments within the social defence paradigm are applied to these findings in the context of the intense pressures currently facing staff in the NHS.     

Suicidal and deliberate self-harm ideation among patients with physical illness: the role of coping styles

The relationship between coping styles and suicidal ideation (SI) or deliberate self-harm (DSH) ideation among patients with physical illness was examined. Four hundred fifteen adult male medical inpatients completed the Coping Styles Questionnaire. Patients with and without SI, and with and without DSH, were compared on coping styles. Sixteen percent of patients (n = 67) had SI and 18.3% (n = 76) had DSH. SI was associated with higher scores on emotional coping and lower scores on rational and detachment coping styles, compared with those without SI. DSH, compared with those without DSH, was associated with significantly higher scores on avoidance coping strategies. These data suggest coping styles among medical patients with and without SI or DSH may differ. The mechanism of this link is not entirely clear, but it may be that coping styles reflect one possible pathway of the association between poor physical health and SI and DSH. Replication of these results in a longitudinal study is needed. If replicated, incorporation of these data into the development of intervention strategies focused on improving coping strategies may be worthwhile.     

Evaluating current deficit theories of poor reading: role of phonological processing, naming speed, balance automaticity, rapid verbal perception and working memory

To clarify the nature of cognitive deficits experienced by poor readers, 9-10-yr.-old poor readers were matched against 9 chronological age and 9 younger reading age-matched controls screened and selected from regular classrooms. Poor readers performed significantly more poorly than chronological age-matched peers on digit naming speed, spoonerisms, and nonsense word reading. Poor readers were also significantly poorer than reading age-matched controls on nonword reading but were significantly better than reading age-matched controls on postural stability. Analyses of effect sizes were consistent with these findings, showing strong effects for digit naming speed, spoonerisms, and nonword reading. However, effect size analysis also suggested that poor readers experienced moderate difficulties with balance automatisation but did not show verbal speech perception deficits relative to either control