Long-term memory of pigeons for stimulus-outcome associations involving multiple stimuli, each seen in a single brief trial

Experiment 1 explored performance of pigeons in two versions of a shortterm recognition memory procedure. In one version responding to entirely novel slides was rewarded, and responding to familiar slides (slides seen once, for 10 sec) was not rewarded; in the other version, responding to familiar slides was rewarded. Performance was initially below chance in both versions of the procedure. This result indicated that in this procedure associations were formed between the slides and the outcome (reward or non-reward) that followed their presentation. The result also suggested that the true capacity of pigeon recognition memory cannot be assessed using these procedures, as performance is inevitably disrupted by the bird's associative memory. The tendency of pigeons to form one-trial associations was exploited in Experiment 2. Phase 1 consisted of 16 two-session cycles: in Session 1 of each cycle, birds were shown 20 novel slides and were rewarded for responding to 10 of those slides; in Session 2, the same slides were shown again, with the same reinforcement contingencies. The birds showed significant overnight retention of the one-trial associations formed in Session 1 of each cycle. Phase 2 showed significant retention over periods of more than 20 days of associations involving 320 slides seen twice only. Phase 3 re-exposed for nine daily sessions one of the sets of 20 slides used in Phases 1 and 2; a high level of discrimination emerged rapidly and 4 (of 8) birds showed, by the end of training, no overlap in response rates to positive and negative slides. Comparative implications of the results are discussed.     

Differential role of the hippocampus in response-outcome and context-outcome learning: evidence from selective satiation procedures

Instrumental performance in rats with hippocampal lesions is insensitive to the degradation of action-outcome contingencies, but sensitive to the effects of selective devaluation by satiation. One interpretation of this dissociation is that damage to the hippocampus impairs the formation of context-outcome associations upon which the effect of contingency degradation, but not selective satiation, relies. Here, we provide a direct assessment of this interpretation, and showed that conditioned responding to contexts did not show sensitivity to selective satiation (Experiment 1), and confirmed that instrumental performance was sensitive to selective satiation (Experiment 2) following hippocampal cell loss.     

Associative modulation of the orienting response: distinct effects revealed by hippocampal lesions

The ability of auditory stimuli to modulate rats' tendency to orient to visual targets was assessed. In Experiment 1, trials where an auditory stimulus (A) signaled one visual array (X) were intermixed with unsignaled presentations of a second array (Y). Comparison of the orienting responses (ORs) to X and Y revealed that A produced a transient (unconditioned) and an emerging (conditioned) disruptive influence on the OR to X. In Experiments 2 and 3, trials where A signaled X were intermixed with others where another auditory stimulus (B) signaled Y. Stimulus A's ability to modulate the OR to X was then assessed by presenting A prior to test arrays containing both X and Y. Control rats were more likely to orient to Y than X (Experiments 2 and 3) and rats with excitotoxic lesions of the hippocampus were more likely to orient to X than Y (Experiment 3). These results show that auditory stimuli exert distinct modulatory influences on the OR to visual stimuli with which they are associated.     

Measuring moral disengagement with a situational judgment test: Advancing the assessment of an important workplace construct

Moral disengagement (MD) has been characterized as a uniquely important predictor of counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs). This study describes the development and validation of a situational judgment test (SJT) for measuring MD in the workplace, which offers potential advantages over existing Likert‐type scales. The development/validation efforts involved two independent rounds of subject‐matter expert (SME) review and data collected from three independent samples. The resulting test, labeled the MD‐SJT, displayed high reliability, was related to an established measure of MD as well as hypothesized personality variables, and was incrementally predictive of CWBs above the established measure of MD. This study advances knowledge pertaining to the assessment of MD, which is a critically important construct in the workplace.     

Failure of a landmark to restrict spatial learning based on the shape of the environment

Rats were required to find a submerged platform in the corner of a swimming pool with a distinctive shape. A landmark near the platform did not interfere with the control acquired by the pool's shape over searching for the platform. This outcome was observed with an overshadowing and a blocking design. A comparison of the ease with which the landmark and the pool's shape gained control over searching for the platform indicates that the failure of overshadowing and blocking was not a consequence of the landmark being less salient than the shape of the pool. The results are not readily explained by theories of associative learning, but they are consistent with the claim that learning about the shape of the environment takes place in a dedicated module, which excludes information about the significance of individual landmarks.     

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF GENDER ROLE ATTITUDES

This article presents a new application of cluster analytic methodology to the study of gender role attitudes. We developed a preliminary typology of men's profiles of masculinity ideology in a sample of 217 upper-level undergraduates stratified across all academic divisions at a large, public university in the midwest. Based on cluster analyses of four dimensions of masculinity ideology, five patterns of endorsement were identified: Moderately Traditional, High Status/Low Violence, Nontraditional, High Violence/Moderately Traditional, and Traditional. Preliminary validity of this cluster solution was demonstrated by significant differences by cluster in gender role egalitarianism.     

“It's ok — Not everyone can be good at math”: Instructors with an entity theory comfort (and demotivate) students

Can comforting struggling students demotivate them and potentially decrease the pool of students pursuing math-related subjects? In Studies 1–3, instructors holding an entity (fixed) theory of math intelligence more readily judged students to have low ability than those holding an incremental (malleable) theory. Studies 2–3 further revealed that those holding an entity (versus incremental) theory were more likely to both comfort students for low math ability and use “kind” strategies unlikely to promote engagement with the field (e.g., assigning less homework). Next, we explored what this comfort-oriented feedback communicated to students, compared with strategy-oriented and control feedback (Study 4). Students responding to comfort-oriented feedback not only perceived the instructor's entity theory and low expectations, but also reported lowered motivation and lower expectations for their own performance. This research has implications for understanding how pedagogical practices can lock students into low achievement and deplete the math pipeline.     

Marketing Control and Sales Force Customer Orientation

This study is predicated on the premise that internal sales force control mechanisms are strategic and operational forces that directly affect the behaviors of the sales force and their accompanying orientation toward customers. Sales managers represent a very different component of the sales force than salespeople. Their motivations, interests, role, and methods of operations all represent different approaches than those embraced by their coworkers: salespeople. Yet, although sales managers operate under an outcome-based control system and can be expected, to some degree, to be motivated by selfinterest (Oliver and Anderson 1994), upper management expects managers to be directed by organizational needs. However, in a results-oriented environment, the foundation of many compensation systems, sales quotas can focus sellers and managers in a direction inconsistent with customer-oriented selling (particularly if this behavior is deemed necessary to achieve quota). Based on this premise, this study examines the influence of sales managers’ quotas on their response to salespeople’s unethical behavior and its resulting effect on the customer orientation of the sales force. To fully explore this condition, this study also examines the role of an important formal process control, the ethical climate (e.g., rules and regulations), in influencing customer orientation. Providing important implications to sales organizations, results indicat that sales quotas can negatively affect sales force customer orientation via their effect on sales managers’ responses to salespeople’s selling behaviors. Interestingly, however, the company’s ethical climate was found to positively influence sales force customer orientation.