Individual differences make a difference: On the use and the psychometric properties of difference scores in social psychology

Much social psychological research is concerned with the question whether and how behavior changes because of a “treatment” (e.g., a situation that triggers a psychological reaction). One easy way to investigate such changes would be to analyze intraindividual differences before (Time 1) and after the treatment (Time 2). Interestingly, many scholars refrain from using difference scores because they think they are inherently unreliable. However, the bad reputation of difference scores is, in many cases, unwarranted: difference scores can be sufficiently reliable when standard deviations differ between measurement occasions, and standard deviations are likely to differ between measurement occasions because of differential treatment effects (i.e., interindividual differences in responsiveness to a treatment) and/or “strong situation” treatments. In the present article, we will (1) summarize classic and current arguments regarding the reliability of difference scores, (2) discuss the use of residual change scores as an alternative to difference scores, and (3) argue that latent difference score models are a particularly useful tool that social psychologists should consider using more frequently. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Classical conditioning and pain: Conditioned analgesia and hyperalgesia

This article reviews situations in which stimuli produce an increase or a decrease in nociceptive responses through basic associative processes and provides an associative account of such changes. Specifically, the literature suggests that cues associated with stress can produce conditioned analgesia or conditioned hyperalgesia, depending on the properties of the conditioned stimulus (e.g., contextual cues and audiovisual cues vs. gustatory and olfactory cues, respectively) and the proprieties of the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., appetitive, aversive, or analgesic, respectively). When such cues are associated with reducers of exogenous pain (e.g., opiates), they typically increase sensitivity to pain. Overall, the evidence concerning conditioned stress-induced analgesia, conditioned hyperalagesia, conditioned tolerance to morphine, and conditioned reduction of morphine analgesia suggests that selective associations between stimuli underlie changes in pain sensitivity.     

The effect of job quality on quality of life and wellbeing in later career stages: A multilevel and longitudinal analysis on older workers in Europe

Applied Research in Quality of Life - This paper uses data from four waves of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) and investigates the effect of job quality on CASP-12,...     

A Self‐regulation Perspective on Hidden‐profile Problems: If–Then Planning to Review Information Improves Group Decisions

In hidden‐profile (HP) problems, groups squander their potential to make superior decisions because members fail to capitalize on each other's unique knowledge (unshared information). A new self‐regulation perspective suggests that hindrances in goal striving (e.g., failing to seize action opportunities) contribute to this problem. Implementation intentions (if–then plans) are known to help deal with hindrances in goal striving; therefore, supporting decision goals with if–then plans should improve the impact of unshared information on group decisions. Indeed, in line with past research, control participants in two experiments rarely identified the best alternative despite monetary incentives and setting decision goals. In contrast, simply adding if–then plans to review advantages of the non‐preferred alternatives before making the final decision significantly increased solution rates. Process manipulations (Experiment 1) and measures (Experiment 2) indicate that conceptualizing HP problems as a self‐regulation challenge provides explanatory power beyond existing accounts. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Positive affect and self-control: Attention to self-control demands mediates the influence of positive affect on consecutive self-control

Positive affect (PA) can either improve or impair self-control performance, depending on whether two tasks are dissimilar, and thus require flexible releasing and switching, or similar, which requires stable maintenance. The present study suggests that this effect is mediated by attentional shifts. The authors found that participants under PA, who performed on two dissimilar tasks and had to switch to a new response dimension, were less attentive to distracting information compared to neutral affect (NE), leading to better performance. In contrast, participants under PA who did not have to switch, were more attentive to distracting information compared to participants under NE. These findings highlight the opposite effects of PA on consecutive self-control.     

Papel de la instrucción en la solución de problemas de correlación

Resumen

Según varios autores, la instrucción sobre los conceptos de probabilidad y la experencia cotidiana en la resolución de problemas que implican esta noción mejora el rendimiento en la solución de problemas probabilísticos, incluso aunque se incluyan en áreas muy diferentes de las que se había utilizado en el aprendizaje. Este artículo muestra una investigación sobre la forma en que solucionan problemas correlacionales licenciados universitarios en distintas especialidades que diferían tanto en su instrucción sobre estadística y probabilidad, como es su experiencia profesional con problemas probabilísticos. La correlación puede ser entendida como un concepto de probabilidad complejo y apenas existen investigaciones que estudien la influencia de la instrucción en problemas de este tipo concreto.

Nuestros sujetos fueron licenciados en Matemáticas, Psicología e Historia que estaban realizando cursos de postgrado y un grupo de licenciados en diferentes especialidades que estaban cursando un Master Internacional en Dirección de Empresas (MIDE). La tarea consistía en seis problemas correlacionales presentados mediante un cuestionario colectivo y que trataban de la relación entre las variaciones en el consumo de una bebida refrescante y una campaña de publicidad. Además de resolver los problemas los sujetos debían indicar la estrategia que creían haber utilizado para solucionarlos y debían escoger la mejor estrategia de solución entre un conjunto que se les presentaba, independientemente de si coincidía o no con la utilizada por ellos.

Nuestros resultados muestran que los matemáticos, seguidos por el grupo MIDE, resolvieron los problemas deforma más adecuada que los otros dos grupos. Estos mismos resultados se encuentran al analizar la adecuación de los autoinformes. Sin embargo, en este caso el grupo de psicólogos tuvo un rendimiento superior al del grupo de historiadores. No había diferencias significativas en cuanto al reconocimiento de la estrategia más adecuada. Parece, por tanto, que en nuestro país la instrucción formal, tal y como la reciben los matemáticos, sirve para generalizar este tipo de conocimiento, mejor que la instrucción más pragmática que recibían los estudiantes del MIDE.     

Living on the edge: strategic and instructed slowing in the stop signal task

The stop signal task is widely adopted to assess motor inhibition performance in both clinical and non-clinical populations. Several recent studies explored the influence of strategic approaches to the task. In particular, response slowing seems to be a strategic approach commonly adopted to perform the task. In the present study, we compared a standard version with a strategic version of the task, in which participants were explicitly instructed to slow down responses. Results showed that the instructed slowing did not affect the main inhibition measure, thus confirming the robustness of the stop signal index. On the other hand, it apparently changed the nature of the task, as shown by the lack of correlation between the standard and the strategic versions. In addition, we found a specific influence of individual characteristics on slowing strategies. In the standard version, adherence to task instructions was positively correlated with compliant traits of personality. Despite instructions to maximize response speed, non-compliant participants preferred to adopt a slowing strategy in the standard version of the task, up to a speed level similar to the strategic version, where slowing was required by task instructions. Understanding the role of individual approach to the task seems to be crucial to properly identify how participants cope with task instructions.