Geometry or not geometry? Perceived orientation and spatial layout in pictures viewed at an angle

Cutting (1988) suggests that changes in the perceived orientations of pictured objects that occur with changes in viewing angle are caused by the geometrical changes that accompany these changes in viewing angle. His geometrical analysis does predict the differential rotation effect reported by Goldstein (1979, 1987), but fails to predict other important aspects of the data. Cutting's analysis does, however, support Goldstein's (1987) conclusion that in future research on picture perception it is important to clearly distinguish between the attributes of perceived orientation and spatial layout.     

Spatial layout, orientation relative to the observer, and perceived projection in pictures viewed at an angle

Judgments of the spatial layout of a three-dimensional array of pictured dowels remain relatively constant as viewing angle changes, whereas judgments of their orientation relative to the observer (perceived orientation) vary. These changes in perceived orientation as viewing angle changes, called the differential rotation effect (DRE), also occur for stimuli such as the eyes in portraits, which are not extended in pictorial space. Thus, the mechanism for the DRE does not depend on the extension of pictured objects in depth. The DRE is decreased when back-illuminated pictures are viewed in the dark so that the picture plane is not visible. This result suggests that the DRE depends on information that defines a pictured object's direction relative to the picture plane. The difference in the way spatial layout and perceived orientation are affected by changes in viewing angle suggests that it is important to distinguish between these two attributes of pictures. In addition, another attribute, the picture's projection, should be distinguished from spatial layout and perceived orientation. When these distinctions are not made, the result is confusion, particularly when discussing whether or not pictures viewed at an angle appear distorted.     

Expressed emotion and reciprocal affective relationships in families of disturbed adolescents

Relatives' expressed emotion (EE) is a known risk factor for relapse among recovering psychiatric patients. Recent research has focused on the behavioral correlates of EE, seeking better understanding of the family processes associated with this important variable. The present study used sequence analysis to explore interactions of high-EE and low-EE parent-child dyads in a sample of disturbed adolescents. High-EE mother-child interactions were characterized by bidirectional influence, and, in contrast to adolescents in low-EE dyads, adolescents in high-EE dyads had an oppositional style of responding. In Low-EE mother-child interactions, the adolescents showed more temporal consistency (stability) of affect than their high-EE counterparts. Overall, the results suggest that high-EE mother-child dyads constitute more tightly joined emotional systems than low-EE dyads. Consequently, interventions designed to reduce this connectedness might also reduce the risk of adolescent psychiatric problems.     

Concurrent validity of the Gardner Test of Visual-Motor Skills

Scores on the Test of Visual-motor Skills, Developmental Test of Visual-motor Integration, and Bender-Gestalt test were compared for a sample of 44 elementary school children referred for evaluation of learning disorders. While the tests shared common variance, the mean standard score on the Test of Visual-motor Skills was significantly lower than the means of the other two tests, suggesting caution in the clinical use of the new scale.     

Internal-external control of reinforcement and embedded-figures performance

Male and female Ss were tested in an extended series of 68 embedded figures. Rate of decrease in discovery time was related to Ss’ attitudes about locus of control of reinforcing outcomes. Results confirmed those of an earlier study, showing that practice dissipated sex-related performance differences observable in early trials.     

Test skewness and kurtosis as functions of item parameters

Indexes of skewness and kurtosis for a test-score distribution are expressed in terms of item parameters. Both are shown to depend, in part, on item means, variances, and covariances. The index of skewness depends also on trivariances. A trivariance is a product moment involving first powers of deviation scores for three items. The index of kurtosis depends on quadrivariances, as well as trivariances. A quadrivariance is a product moment involving first powers of deviation scores for four items. Empirical data are presented for responses of groups of subjects to 25 triads and 25 tetrads of items from five tests.Certain parts of this article represent the results of doctoral research conducted by Hundleby and Goldstein under the direction of Ray in the Department of Psychology at Pennsylvania State University. The authors are indebted to Professor Lester Guest and Professor William Lepley for their supervisory assistance in the final stages of the two dissertations during the absence of the senior author.     

Auditory agnosia for speech (“pure word-deafness”): A historical review with current implications

A historical review of thought about the existence, clinical presentation, and mechanism of auditory agnosia for speech is presented. Implications of recent contributions which shed more light on this syndrome are discussed.