The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: revision and validation

The present study presents a new, unit-weight scoring system for the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ). One hundred thirty-one college students completed the DEQ, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The revised DEQ scales were shown to have substantial levels of internal consistency. The three subscales of the revised DEQ were significantly correlated with the BSRI masculinity and femininity scales but not with gender. Significant correlations were also obtained between DEQ anaclitic, DEQ introjective scales and the BDI.     

Ethical considerations in the use of computers in psychological testing and assessment

Ethical considerations in the use of computers in psychological testing and assessment are discussed. Particular attention is given to existing ethics and standards that provide guidance to users of computerized test interpretation and report-writing programs. Issues covering professional accountability and confidentiality are also discussed as they relate to computer-assisted assessment. Areas of appropriate use of computers in testing and assessment are suggested, including test scoring, the analysis of scores, and generating remedial recommendations. Findings are summarized and several guidelines are suggested for users of computers in testing and assessment.     

Resolving discrepant results of the Wheatstone Experiment

Summary Soon after Wheatstone published his results obtained with the twelve earliest stereograms. Brewster disputed the result obtained with one of them. This stereogram consisted of a thick vertical line presented to one eye and a thin vertical and thick inclined line to the other. Wheatstone reported seeing depth with this figure but Brewster did not. We conducted three experiments to explore the possible reason for the disagreement. Experiment 1 indicated that the stereogram produces a variety of perceptions including the depth as reported by Wheatstone and the rivalry as reported by Brewster. Experiment 2 showed that Brewster's procedure of keeping the eyes fixed while viewing the stereogram reduces the proportion of subjects reporting depth. In Experiment 3, the top half and the bottom half of the stereogram were presented in different trials. The top of the stereogram that contains no conflicting cues produced reliable depth, but the bottom that does, did not. It is concluded that the difference in the procedures they used and the nature of the stimulus were responsible for the conflicting results.     

Masculinity,femininity, self-esteem,and subclinical depression

A study involving 197 university undergraduates (83 males, 114 females) tested the hypothesis that depressive symptoms assessed by the short form of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) would be negatively related to masculinity (M) scores from the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) but unrelated to femininity scores (F). It was also hypothesized that the negative relationship between masculinity and self-reports of depressive symptoms may be due to shared variance in self-esteem. The results supported predictions. In particular, the negative relationship linking masculinity to depressive symptoms disappeared when the effects of self-esteem were partialed out. Results are discussed in terms of the thesis that self-esteem may reflect in part the dominant masculine values of Western-type cultures and that manifestations of psychological ill health may occur when there is reduced opportunity to engage in behaviors that reflect these values.     

Selective attention and priming: Inhibitory and facilitatory effects of ignored primes

The priming effects of ignored information have been studied in Stroop displays (Neill, 1977) and with spatially superimposed drawings (Tipper, in this issue); naming of probes related to ignored primes is delayed in these experiments (“negative priming”). This negative priming effect is confirmed in a list reading task in Experiment 1, which used partially superimposed letters, and Experiment 2, which used spatially separated letters. Furthermore, Lowe (1979) using Stroop colour words observed that changing the nature of the probe such that it did not require selection from a competing word reversed the priming effects of the ignored word from inhibition to facilitation. Experiment 3 confirmed this observation when subjects selected a red letter from a green letter. Two models are suggested to account for this result. In the first, negative priming is a product of the ignored prime and subsequent probe being encoded both as a stimulus to be ignored and one to be named (Allport, Tipper and Chmiel, in press; Lowe, in press). This dual encoding is ambiguous, requiring further processing before response can be output. The other model suggests that negative priming reflects inhibition of response to ignored information, slowing naming latencies to probe stimuli that require the same response. Experiment 4 attempts to differentiate between the models, and the latter inhibition view is preferred.     

Motivation and performance: Two consequences of winning and losing in competition

The present study examined the effects of competitive outcome—either a win or a loss—on intrinsic motivation. Winning was hypothesized to facilitate both performance and intrinsic motivation. Fifty-four participants, 29 females and 25 males, competed against a same-gender confederate in a puzzle-solving contest. Following the competition, participants' intrinsic motivation was surreptitiously measured by the amount of time spent playing with the puzzle while alone. Results showed that winning facilitated both actual competitive performance and intrinsic motivation relative to losing. The importance of considering the outcome when predicting intrinsic motivation after competition is discussed.     

Doctoral training in behavior analysis: Training generalized problem-solving skills

This essay provides guidelines for designing a doctoral program in behavior analysis. First, we propose a general accomplishment for all behavior analytic doctoral students: that they be able to solve problems concerning individual behavior within a range of environments. Second, in order to achieve this goal, we propose that students be trained in conceptual and experimental analysis of behavior, the application of behavioral principles and the administration of behavioral programs. This training should include class work, but it should emphasize the immersion of students in a variety of environments in which they are required to use behavior analytic strategies. Third, we provide an example of a hypothetical graduate program that involves the proposed training. Finally, an evaluation plan is suggested for determining whether a training program is in fact producing students who are generalized problem-solvers. At each step, we justify our point of view from a perspective that combines principles from behavior analysis and educational systems design.     

A modification in scoring the ABC Scale

The scoring procedures for the Articulation of the Body-Concept (ABC) Scale to use with three-, four- and five-year-old children were modified to determine their degree of field-dependence-independence. A total of 300 children, who obtained a score of one or better on the ABC Scale, were administered the Preschool Embedded Figures Test (PEFT) and the ABC Scale. The ABC Scale was scored using its scoring procedures and the scoring procedures for the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT). Scores on the PEFT, ABC Scale and GHDT were correlated with each other. Correlations among all cognitive measures ranged from .88 to .99, which were high and statistically significant (p < .0001). Therefore, the scoring procedures for the GHDT can be substituted in scoring the ABC Scale in assessing young children's field-dependence-independence.     

Evaluation of the BSRI masculine and feminine items using desirability and stereotype ratings

This study empirically tested Bem's (1974) assumption that the BSRI Masculinity and Femininity scales measure sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women in American society. The adequacy of items in the two scales was evaluated by Bem's (1974) criteria using two types of desirability and stereotype ratings. Results obtained in all the experimental conditions except one involving Bem's desirability instructions and Bem's rating scale did not support the tested assumption. Implications of these results for revising the BSRI scales were discussed.