Separate visual representations in the planning and control of action

Evidence for a dichotomy between the planning of an action and its on-line control in humans is reviewed. This evidence suggests that planning and control each serve a specialized purpose utilizing distinct visual representations. Evidence from behavioral studies suggests that planning is influenced by a large array of visual and cognitive information, whereas control is influenced solely by the spatial characteristics of the target, including such things as its size, shape, orientation, and so forth. Evidence from brain imaging and neuropsychology suggests that planning and control are subserved by separate visual centers in the posterior parietal lobes, each constituting part of a larger network for planning and control. Planning appears to rely on phylogenetically newer regions in the inferior parietal lobe, along with the frontal lobes and basal ganglia, whereas control appears to rely on older regions in the superior parietal lobe, along with the cerebellum.     

Maternal stress in pregnancy and its effect on the human foetus: an overview of research findings

There is evidence from human studies that anxiety or stress during pregnancy can affect birth outcome, causing babies to be born earlier and possibly smaller for gestational age. There is also some suggestive evidence for longer-term behavioural problems. Animal studies indicate that antenatal stress does have a long-term effect on the behaviour of the offspring, including a hyper-responsive hypothalamo-pituitary -adrenal axis. The human foetus can mount an independent stress response from mid-gestation. Two possible mechanisms have been demonstrated by which maternal stress or anxiety may affect the human foetus, the passage of cortisol across the placenta, and an impairment of blood flow through the maternal uterine arteries.     

Teaching ethics on rounds: The ethicist as teacher,consultant, and decision-maker

This paper explores the relationship between teaching and consulting in clinical ethics teaching and the role of the ethics teacher in clinical decision-making. Three roles of the clinical ethics teacher are discussed and illustrated with examples from the authors' experience. Two models of the ethics consultant are contrasted, with an argument presented for the ethics consultant as decision facilitator. A concluding section points to some of the challenges of clinical ethics teaching.     

FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING OF SEMANTIC MEMORY PROCESSES IN THE FRONTAL LOBES

Abstract— Frontal-lobe activation during semantic memory performance was examined using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a noninvasive technique for localizing neural activity associated with cognitive function. Left inferior prefrontal cortex was more activated for semantic than for perceptual encoding of words, and for initial than for repeated semantic encoding of words. Decreased activation for semantic encoding of repeated words reflects repetition priming, that is, implicit retrieval of memory gained in the initial semantic encoding of a word. The left inferior prefrontal region may sub-serve semantic working memory processes that participate in semantic encoding and that have decreased demands when such encoding can be facilitated by recent semantic experience. These results demonstrate that fMRI can visualize changes in an individual's brain function associated with the encoding and retrieval of new memories.     

Discriminators of Moral Orientation: Gender Role or Personality?

Gender role (i.e., masculinity and femininity), personality traits, age, and level of education were used as discriminators of moral orientation in an examination of their role in the process of moral decision making. Responses of adult participants indicated the justice orientation to be most strongly associated with personality characteristics of judging and intuition; the care orientation was most strongly associated with perceiving and sensing. Masculinity and femininity, however, contributed very little to the analysis. Results indicate moral orientation may be less differentiated by gender role patterns and more by characteristics of the personality, involving perception of information and type of judgment.     

Risk‐taking and the adolescent brain: who is at risk?

Relative to other ages, adolescence is described as a period of increased impulsive and risk-taking behavior that can lead to fatal outcomes (suicide, substance abuse, HIV, accidents, etc.). This study was designed to examine neural correlates of risk-taking behavior in adolescents, relative to children and adults, in order to predict who may be at greatest risk. Activity in reward-related neural circuitry in anticipation of a large monetary reward was measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging, and anonymous self-report ratings of risky behavior, anticipation of risk and impulsivity were acquired in individuals between the ages of 7 and 29 years. There was a positive association between accumbens activity and the likelihood of engaging in risky behavior across development. This activity also varied as a function of individuals' ratings of anticipated positive or negative consequences of such behavior. Impulsivity ratings were not associated with accumbens activity, but rather with age. These findings suggest that during adolescence, some individuals may be especially prone to engage in risky behaviors due to developmental changes in concert with variability in a given individual's predisposition to engage in risky behavior, rather than to simple changes in impulsivity.     

Parents' Feelings Towards Their Adoptive and Non-Adoptive Children

In the current study, we examined parent gender differences in feelings (negativity and positivity) and perceptions of child behavioural and emotional problems in adoptive and biological parent-child dyads. In a sample of 85 families, we used a novel within-family adoption design in which one child was adopted and one child was a biological child of the couple, and tested whether the links between parent feelings and child maladjustment included effects of passive gene-environment correlation. Parents reported more negativity and less positivity as well as higher levels of externalizing behaviour for the adopted child compared to the non-adopted child, although effect sizes were small and no longer statistically significant after correcting for multiple comparisons. Fathers and mothers did not differ significantly in their reports of positive and negative feelings towards their children or in regard to child externalizing and internalizing behaviours. The correlations between parental negativity and positivity and child externalizing and internalizing were similar for fathers and mothers, and for adopted and non-adopted children. The findings suggest similar parent-child relationship processes for fathers and mothers, and that genetic transmission of behaviour from parent to child does not account for the association between parental warmth and hostility and child-adjustment problems.     

The Incidence of Incest Histories Among Clients Receiving Substance Abuse Treatment

Volunteer participants (N = 77) enrolled in eight substance abuse treatment facilities were surveyed in order to examine the prevalence and nature of incest contacts among the group. Results indicated that approximately 49% of the participants had reported histories of incest. Data are presented regarding the age during incest contact; frequency of contacts; and involvement of force, alcohol, and drugs. In addition, comparisons by gender are presented. Implications for substance abuse training and treatment are presented.     

The effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact on plasma cortisol and β-endorphin concentrations in preterm newborns

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact on plasma β- endorphin and cortisol concentrations in stable, preterm infants on a newborn intensive care unit. Blood samples were obtained before and at the end of a 20-min period of skin-to-skin contact. Similarly paired samples, obtained at the same times and after the same interval, without skin-to- skin contact, were obtained on another day and served as controls. Both cortisol and β-endorphin concentrations fell significantly after the skin-to-skin session (cortisol: geometric mean change 66%, p=0.008; β-endorphin: geometric mean change 74%, p=0.002). There was also a significant fall in cortisol levels during the control session (geometric mean change 78%, p=0.02), in contrast to β-endorphin levels, in which there was no significant change. Analysis of variance showed that the fall in β-endorphin, but not the fall in cortisol, during the skin-to-skin session was significant when compared with the control session. These results emphasize the hormonal responsiveness of the preterm newborn to relatively minor interventions. We conclude that maternal skin-to-skin contact results in a significant reduction in circulating β-endorphin in the newborn; there was no evidence of any adverse effect.     

Considerations for evaluating universal screening assessments

Universal screening is a critical prerequisite to providing early school-based prevention and intervention services for students at risk for or with academic, behavioral, or emotional difficulties. Although use of academic and behavioral screening has become more prevalent, criteria for making informed decisions about appropriate screening tools are not readily available to those who work in educational settings. The purpose of this article is to (a) highlight several considerations about the appropriateness, technical adequacy, and usability of academic or behavioral screeners and (b) provide a general assessment of the current state of science pertaining to universal screening. The article concludes with considerations for policy and practice. The framework presented may be useful in guiding those interested in evaluating, selecting, and researching school-based universal screening assessments.