Word frequency,articulatory suppression and memory span

Watkins (1977) found memory span was longer when first and second halves of lists contained high- and low-frequency words, respectively, than when low-frequency words preceded high. One of the four experiments reported here failed to replicate this finding and found that articulatory suppression had a greater detrimental effect on span for high- than for low-frequency words. Another experiment showed that high-frequency words similar to those used by Watkins were easier to articulate than low-frequency words. In the third experiment articulatory suppression did not differentially affect delayed recall of high- and low-frequency words. The fourth experiment showed span for high- and low-frequency words was influenced in a similar way when encouraging subjects to maintain words from either early or late serial positions by articulatory rehearsal. It is concluded that differences in the strategies adopted to maintain words in the articulatory rehearsal loop can account for inconsistencies in the results obtained here and in previous experiments.     

Worksite stress management interventions

Despite the general agreement that stress plays a role in everyday life, there continues to be substantial controversy about how stress can be managed at the worksite. During the last decade, our knowledge of stress management interventions has increased substantially. Despite this improvement, deficiencies in the literature exist. In this article, we offer a framework that may be used for viewing organizational stress interventions, briefly review some of the stress management intervention literature in the context of this framework, and identify future needs that may be particularly appropriate for organizational psychologists to address.     

The Effect of Capital Punishment on Jurors' Willingness to Convict

Decision-making theory suggests that jurors will tend to choose the verdict that maximizes the expected gains minus the expected losses of each decision. Capital punishment (as compared to a maximum sentence of life imprisonment) would seem to increase the perceived negative consequences of a guilty verdict without affecting the consequences of a non-guilty verdict. This should make guilty decisions less likely. To test this prediction, questionnaires were sent to all jurors who had served on 32 first degree murder trials in which capital punishment was not in effect and who reached guilty verdicts. They were asked whether their verdicts in the murder trial would have been affected if capital punishment had been a possible sentence. Thirty percent of the respondents replied that they would have been less likely to vote guilty, whereas only 3% said they would have been more likely to vote guilty. Of the 32 separate jury panels, 30 had at least one person who indicated that he or she would have been less likely to vote guilty; and in 7 trials, 50% or more of those who responded gave this answer. The results appear to indicate that the possibility of a death sentence reduces the likelihood of a guilty verdict.     

Selection of movement patterns during functional tasks in humans

These experiments examine the role of vision and step height in the selection of a simple binary choice of movement pattern by human subjects. The subjects selected a heel strike movement pattern (HS) (as used during level surface locomotion) or a toe strike movement pattern (TS) (as used during stair descent). The functional task involved descending a step of adjustable height followed by level surface walking under vision and nonvision conditions. Triceps surae and tibialis anterior electromyographic (EMG) activity, ankle angle position, and vertical force were examined. As step height was increased, there was an indistinct threshold at which subjects switched from landing with a HS movement pattern to a TS movement pattern. The tibialis anterior and triceps surae precontact EMG burst and subsequent ankle movement for HS and TS trials appear to be part of preprogrammed movement patterns, which are presumably of central origin. The particular mixture of voluntary, stereotypic, and reflex actions for any specified movement is based on the intent or functional outcome desired. The switching to the TS movement pattern as step height increased presumably results in the most efficient and stable movement.     

Components of rational-emotive imagery: Two experiments with nonassertive students

Unassertive students took part in two experiments to assess the contributions of emotional and cognitive rehearsal procedures in rational-emotive imagery. In each study participants received analogue treatment in groups, which met twice for one and a half hours. In Experiment 1 behavior rehearsal (BR) was more effective than emotional rehearsal (ER, which involved tryping to attenuate unwanted feelings in fantasy) and cognitive rehearsal (CR, which involved examining negative, and rehearsing helpful, self-statements) as assessed by a self-report measure of assertiveness. In Experiment 2 combinations of Experiment 1 procedures were tested in a factorial design. On a behavioral test, BR proved more effective than the treatment combinations, but on questionnaire measures of social anxiety and irrational beliefs rational-emotive imagery (the combination of CR with ER) was superior to the other treatment conditions. Results are encouraging in that rational-emotive imagery was more successful than either component in isolation, even within the limits of a brief analogue study. Further clinical trials are needed.     

Psychological differentiation as a factor in conflict resolution.

Previous studies have shown that persons matched in level of differentiation are likely to develop greater interpersonal attraction in the course of an interaction than are mismatched persons. These studies were all conducted in situations where the interacting persons were working toward a common goal. To test the hypothesis that situational variables may moderate match-mismatch effects, the present study investigated these affects when the interacting persons were in conflict. Based on their performance in tests of field dependence-independence, subjects were selected as relatively high or relatively low in level of differentiation. Three kinds of dyads were composed-high-differentiation/high-differentiation, low-differentiation/low-differentiation, and high-differentiation/low-differentiation--and their task was to reconcile conflict on an issue about which they were known to disagree. It was predicted that because of the more accommodating quality of low-differentiation persons, dyads including one or two such subjects would more often reconcile their disagreements and show greater interpersonal attraction than would dyads consisting of two high-differentiation subjects. Both predictions were confirmed, supporting the hypothesis that the outcome of match or mismatch is mediated by situational variables.     

Threats,Promises, and Coalitions: A Study of Compliance and Retaliation in a Simulated Organizational Setting1

This research sought to examine the effects of threats and promises on compliance and the formation of subordinate coalitions in a simulated employeremployee conflict situation. It also sought to determine some of the motives underlying coalition decisions-tangible and intangible-and the conditions under which each of these possible motive types would be salient. Coalition motives were examined by manipulating the consequences for coalition members following their use of coalition power (presence vs. absence of monetary gain). A control condition was present in which no such power was available. Ninety male undergraduate business students were randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions in a 3 × 2 factorial design. Three Ss engaged in a modified bilateral monopoly bargaining task in which two of them (the “employees”) believed they were exchanging a series of offers and counteroffers with the third (the “employer”) over a hypothetical wage increase for a maximum of eight rounds. Ss were told they would earn a sum of money proportional to the effectiveness of their bargaining. In actuality, all Ss were assigned the employee role and all employer “offers” were pre-programmed. On round six, the Ss were “sent” either a threat or promise message by the employer demanding that they accept his round five offer. Compliance-noncompliance was defined as employee acceptance-rejection of this demand, respectively. In addition to compliance behavior, S s in coalition conditions had the power to form an alliance with the other employee against the employer after the latter used his threat or promise power. Coalitions could confiscate up to 25% of the employer's earnings and, depending on experimental condition, could either keep or not keep any money their coalition acquired. It was hypothesized that threateners would elicit less compliance, and be responded to with more, and more severe subordinate coalitions than would promisers. It was further assumed that there would be less compliance when subordinates had coalition power, and that the effect of monetary reward on the likelihood of coalition formation would be contingent on the type of power (threats vs. promises) the employer used. Specifically, it was assumed that a majority of S s in the Threat condition who had this power would form coalitions against the employer regardless of whether or not they realized any tangible gain for doing so. In the promise condition, however, it was expected that coalition decisions would be based primarily on whether Ss stood to gain monetarily. The hypotheses were supported. These results were discussed in terms of the impact of power acquisition as a variable mediating perception and compliance behavior, and in terms of the role of economic vs. retaliatory motives as factors underlying subordinate coalition decisions. Some of the conditions which influence the relative salience of these two coalition motives were proposed, and the organizational implications of these findings were suggested.