Attaining landmark status: Rumelhart and McClelland's PDP Volumes and the Connectionist Paradigm

In 1986, David Rumelhart and James McClelland published their two‐volume work, Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in microcognition, Volume 1: Foundations and Volume 2: Psychological and biological models. These volumes soon become classic texts in both connectionism, specifically, and in the cognitive science field more generally. Drawing on oral histories, book reviews, translations, citation records, and close textual analysis, this paper analyzes how and why they attained landmark status. It argues that McClelland and Rumelhart's volumes became classics largely as a result of a confluence of rhetorical factors. Specifically, the PDP Volumes appeared at a kairotic moment in the history of connectionism, publishing dynamics that facilitated their circulation played an important role, and the volumes were ambiguous about the relationship between model and brain in a manner that enabled them to address an expansive audience. In so doing, this paper offers insight into both the history of cognitive science and rhetoric's role in establishing classic texts.     

Anxiety Symptoms as Predictors of Nursing Home Placement in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease

Anxiety symptoms are fairly common among patients with Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Such symptoms are likely to make patient care more problematic and, therefore, increase the risk of nursing home placement. Anxiety symptoms were evaluated on the basis of physician examinations, in conjunction with caregiver interviews, in 372 community-dwelling AD patients. Patients received annual follow-up for 1–12 years (M = 4.4). Patients who exhibited anxiety symptoms at baseline assessment were significantly more likely to enter nursing homes, regardless of initial cognitive status or other risks for institutionalization. There was a 15% increase in risk for each point on a 0–5 scale. This study supports the hypothesis that anxiety symptoms increase the risk of nursing home placement in patients with AD. Consequently, there is a need for better understanding of the causes of anxiety in AD and for the development of effective methods of assessment and treatment.     

Comparison-level preferences after performance: is downward comparison theory still useful?

Although often credited with prompting a paradigm shift in social comparison theory, T. A. Wills's (1981) downward comparison (DC) theory has received some criticism recently. In particular, several recent studies have failed to find support for T. A. Wills's (1981) contention that threat and accompanying negative affect lead to a desire for DC. These apparent failures have led some investigators to question basic principles of the theory. To resolve this controversy, 5 studies were conducted examining preferred comparison level (PCL) after performance; 4 of the studies also assessed change in this preference. Results supported DC theory, but with modifications. Specifically, individuals who performed poorly lowered their PCLs. Under some circumstances, this "downward shift" included an increased interest in "true" DC--comparing with worse-off others. A reconciliation of these results with those of previous studies is offered.     

Individual and structural origins of friendship and social position among professionals

Friendship affects individual and organizational well-being through direct relations, social positions, and complex network structures. In this study, the authors use longitudinal data from 2 groups of master's of business administration students to increase understanding of how friendship networks develop. The authors propose and test a dynamic model in which attribute similarity facilitates dyadic friendship ties, as well as similar network centrality and social position; early friendship increases later similarity in structural position and centrality; and early structural similarity enhances the likelihood of future friendship. Findings largely supported the model, demonstrating how homophily and early social contacts can jointly shape maturing friendship networks.     

It's about timing and change: pubertal transition effects on symptoms of major depression among African American youths

Effects of early physical maturation and accelerated pubertal changes on symptoms of major depression were examined in 639 African American children. Three rival hypotheses, early timing, off-time, and stressful change, were tested using 2 waves of data (mean ages = 11 and 13 years). The pubertal effect operates differently according to children's gender and age. For girls, early maturation was consistently associated with elevated levels of depressive symptoms. For boys, early maturers manifested elevated levels of depression only at age 11, but these symptoms subsided by age 13. Boys who experienced accelerated pubertal growth over time displayed elevated symptom levels. Results support the early timing hypothesis for girls and the stressful change hypothesis for boys. Time at assessment is critical when examining boys' pubertal transition.     

Moderation of the effects of discrimination-induced affective responses on health outcomes

Objective: The goal of the study was to examine differential mediation of long-term effects of discrimination on health behaviour and health status by internalising (anxiety and depression) and externalising (hostility and anger), and to explore moderation of these effects, specifically, by the presence of support networks and coping tendencies.

Design: The current analyses employed structural equation modelling of five waves of data from Black female participants of the Family and Community Health Study over 11 years (M age 37–48).

Main Outcomes Measures: The main outcome variables were health status and alcohol use (frequency and problematic consumption).

Results: Perceived racial discrimination was associated with increases in internalising and externalising. In addition, internalising reactions to discrimination were associated with deterioration in health status and increases in problematic drinking; externalising reactions were associated with increases in frequency of drinking. These relations were attenuated by availability of support networks, and exacerbated by use of avoidance coping.

Conclusion: The current study (a) replicated previous research suggesting that two different types of affective reactions mediate the relations between perceived racial discrimination and physical health status vs. health-impairing behaviours: internalising and externalising, and (b) revealed moderation of these effects by coping mechanisms.     

Assessing the Initial Pleasantness for Fading Affect,Fixed Affect,Flourishing Affect,and Flexible Affect Events

Over time, autobiographical memories demonstrate fixed affect (i.e., maintain initial affect), fading affect, flourishing affect (i.e., increased affect), or flexible affect (i.e., change from unpleasant to pleasant or vice versa). Walker and Skowronski argued that events low in initial pleasantness are more likely to exhibit flourishing affect and flexible affect and that unpleasant events are more likely to demonstrate flexible affect than pleasant events. However, because of the low frequency of flourishing affect and flexible affect events in individual studies, research had not examined differences between these event categories. The present study examined initial pleasantness ratings for fading affect, fixed affect, flourishing affect, and flexible affect events across four published studies. We expected and generally found lower initial pleasantness for flourishing affect and flexible affect events than for fading affect and fixed affect events. Implications are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.