Focus of attention and placebo utility

The effects of focus of attention and expected drug effects on reactions to a placebo were examined in two experiments. In the first experiment self-aware and non-self-aware subjects were given a placebo that was said to be either performance-facilitating or inhibiting and then they worked on a set of arithmetic problems. It was expected that the non-self-aware subjects, but not the self-aware subjects, would display a self-serving bias in their attributions regarding the effects of the placebo. Specifically, it was predicted that non-self-aware subjects would attribute more arousal to the performance-inhibiting drug than the performance-facilitating drug since such attributions would be more psychologically beneficial or “useful” in the sense that they would make actual performance on the task look more impressive. Consistent with these predictions, there was evidence of a self-serving bias in drug reactions only among the non-self-focused subjects. Those who were made self-aware did not respond differentially to the two types of drug information. Instead, they appeared to respond in line with their actual (aroused) internal states by attributing some arousal to both drugs. In the second experiment arousal was reduced by eliminating the task, and this time self-focused subjects again appeared to be more aware of their actual internal states, as they reported less reaction to the placebo, regardless of the effects ascribed to it. Two conclusions are drawn from these results: (a) perceived drug utility does effect placebo responsiveness, and (b) self-focused attention increases awareness of internal states, but not necessarily the causes of those states.     

Behavioral expectations of retarded and nonretarded children

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effect of the mental retardation (MR) label on impression formation among retarded and nonretarded children and adolescents. The first experiment, conducted with nonretarded children in a mainstreamed school, indicated that they have pessimistic expectations of retarded children with regard to cognitive and ability-related behaviorsand, to a lesser extent, social behaviors (i.e., getting married). However, their reactions were not as pessimistic nor as “patronizing” as were those demonstrated by college students in previous research. In the second experiment, mentally retarded adolescents indicated that they also have negative behavioral expectations of retarded children, however, their self expectations were negative only for social behaviors. The results suggest that, among retarded persons, the expectations associated with the MR label are negative for social behavior, but apparently less pessimistic for cognitive and ability related tasks.     

Selective exposure to self

Male undergraduates received either an accepting or unaccepting communication from a coed. Then each subject had the opportunity to listen to his own voice or the voice of another male, and it was found that preference for listening to one's own voice was higher among subjects who had received positive feedback from the coed. There was also evidence that this pattern of selective exposure is weakened when feedback is less impactful. The results were interpreted through a theory of objective self awareness.     

A subset selection technique for scoring items on a multiple choice test

On a multiple-choice test in which each item hask alternative responses, the test taker is permitted to choose any subset which he believes contains the one correct answer. A scoring system is devised that depends on the size of the subset and on whether or not the correct answer is eliminated. The mean and variance of the score per item are obtained. Methods are derived for determining the total number of items that should be included on the test so that the average score on all items can be regarded as a good measure of the subject's knowledge. Efficiency comparisons between conventional and the subset selection scoring procedures are made. The analogous problem ofr > 1 correct answers for each item (withr fixed and known) is also considered.The authors are grateful to M. Aitkin, C. Coombs, F. Lord, and the reviewers for their comments and suggestions.     

Using images to increase exercise behavior: prototypes versus possible selves

This study investigated the impact of health-related prototypes and possible selves on exercise behavior. In addition, this study examined if these effects might be moderated by individual differences-specifically social comparison (SC) and consideration of future consequences (CFC). One hundred and fifty-two students participated in all three waves of the study-premanipulation, manipulation, and follow-up. As expected, results indicated that individuals who were high on SC and exposed to a prototype manipulation increased their exercise behavior at follow-up. Furthermore, individuals who were future-oriented and exposed to a possible selves manipulation increased their exercise behavior at follow-up. Overall, results revealed that health images have an important impact on health behavior. Implications for behavior change are discussed.     

An application of item response theory to alexithymia assessment among abstinent alcoholics.

An item response theory (IRT) model identified three dimensions assessed by the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) in a sample of 130 male applicants for inpatient care at a Veterans Administration (VA) medical center alcoholism treatment program. A unidimensional solution did not capture all of alexithymia's theoretical features. Subjects with lower alexithymia scores gave positive responses to items tapping emotional awareness deficits; only those with higher alexithymia scores gave positive responses to items tapping external, operative cognitive style. Thus, a total TAS score may not represent alexithymia accurately in substance-abusing patient populations.     

Gender Effects in Couples' Sexual Decision Making and Contraceptive Use

Previous research has demonstrated that men tend to be more influential than women in mixed-sex dyads. The current study was an examination of sex differences in influence among dating couples making two different kinds of sexual decisions. In a laboratory decision-making task, male and female partners wrote their opinions about premarital sex and contraception independently, and then worked together as a couple to write a joint opinion. The results replicated previous findings in that the male partners' responses were more similar to the couples' responses than were the females'. An examination of gender influence in the couples' contraceptive behavior , however, indicated that the female partners were more influential than the males in this arena. Thus the data suggest that while men in general may be more influential than women in couples' decision making, there are specific decision domains in which women have considerable influence. Factors that influence gender effects in sexual decision making are discussed.