Simultaneously Observing Concurrently-Available Schedules as a Means to Study the Near Miss Event in Simulated Slot Machine Gambling

Traditionally, near-miss events in games of skill provide feedback to an individual regarding his or her performance. However, in games of chance, like slot machine gambling, the use fails to carry over. A near miss in slot machine gambling may still be endorsed when most of the symbols falling on a payline match, though technically this arrangement provides no real measure of skill or progress. To date, attempts to study the near miss in slot machine gambling have used resistance to extinction and preference assessment preparations, both of which unsuccessfully capture any putative reinforcement properties. The current investigation introduces a new methodology to assess putative conditioned reinforcement properties of stimuli correlated with the near miss in simulated slot machine gambling by incorporating the observing response with concurrently available schedules, termed simultaneous observing. Successful tests of the methodology regarding schedule-correlated stimuli in relation to win rates demonstrate its potential use, and failure to identify a near-miss event as producing reinforcing effects for schedule-correlated stimuli adds credibility to its ability to discriminate between functions.

     

Influence of Age of Listener on Preadolescents’ Linguistic Behavior

Research indicates that young children and adults alter their linguistic behavior in response to the age of the person they are addressing. Yet to be established is how different-age individuals affect the linguistic behavior of preadolescents. The present study explored this question. While seated in a lounge-like setting, five 11-year-olds individually interacted with a young child (6-years), an age-peer, and a young adult (25-30 years). Analysis of the videotaped interactions focused on the preadolescents; measures were taken on the number, duration, and content of their initiated interactions. With young children, the subjects tended to initiate many brief interactions; with adults the initiations were fewer but longer in duration. They tended also to refer to themselves or their family and friends when addressing adults, but referred to the child or the child’s family and friends when speaking with children. Additional findings were (a) most interactions were narrative and initiated verbal-vocally; (b) time frames were seldom specified, except with the adult concerning the past and future; (c) feeling reactions were rarely expressed; and (d) secondary adjustments were infrequent, but when they did occur, most were with the child as part of cooperative game-playing. These findings are consistent with research on adults and children. Importantly, the present study demonstrates the applicability of a research method based on a natural science approach to language.

     

The effects of blocking mouthing of leisure items on their effectiveness as reinforcers

Leisure items are commonly used as reinforcers in behavior-analytic applications. However, a defining feature of autism is the occurrence of stereotypy, and individuals with autism often engage leisure items in a stereotyped manner. The opportunity for stereotyped interaction may be the only aspect of a contingent stimulus that makes it a reinforcer for appropriate behavior. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of blocking stereotyped reinforcer interaction on reinforcer efficacy for 2 children with autism. Results showed that blocking stereotypic reinforcer interaction did not influence reinforcer efficacy.     

New perspectives on theories linking cognition,emotion, and context: A proposal from the Theory of Analysis of Demand

Both scholars and practitioners acknowledge that the major factors explaining behavior are cognition, emotion, and context. However, existing theories tend to only focus on a combination of two. Furthermore, not all models are rooted in a specific theory of mind. Finally, there is no consistent definition of ‘mind.’ To address these issues, we review the major models explaining behavior. We then describe the Theory of Analysis of Demand (TAD), an interactionist (individual-context) model of functioning of mind that thoroughly addresses the conjoint interplay of cognition, emotion, and context. A key concept of the TAD is emotional symbolization, the process of relating one’s experiences of the external context with an inevitable emotional reaction. By considering an intersection among cognition, emotion, and context, TAD fills the gap in the existing literature and expands our understanding of behavior. Moreover, we describe the TAD intervention methodology, Individual-Setting of intervention-Organization technique, which explores an individual’s demand for intervention and the underlying emotion-, cognition-, and context-related categories (i.e., emotional symbolization) that prompt the request. Last, we discuss the potential benefits and boundary conditions of the TAD to integrate existing approaches.