Long-term effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection behaviors.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the longer term efficacies of exposure to UV photographs and photoaging information (e.g., wrinkles and age spots) for increasing sun protection intentions and behaviors of young adults. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial with 4- to 5-month and 12-month follow-ups. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants' self-reported sun protection intentions assessed immediately after the interventions, and both self-reported sun protection behaviors and an objective assessment (via spectrophotometry) of skin color change measured at the end of summer (4-5 months following interventions) and 1 year following interventions. RESULTS: Both interventions resulted in immediate positive effects on future sun protection intentions. Both interventions showed objective evidence of less skin darkening at the postsummer follow-up, with those in the photoaging information condition also reporting more sun protective behavior and continuing to show less skin darkening 1 year after intervention. There was also evidence that effects of photoaging information on subsequent skin color change were mediated by the earlier positive effect photoaging information had on participants' intentions to sun protect and their subsequent sun protection behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: UV photo and photoaging-information interventions each show promise as a brief and relatively inexpensive approach for motivating sun protection practices that may reduce skin cancer risk.     

Meta-analysis of the relationship between risk perception and health behavior: the example of vaccination.

BACKGROUND: Risk perceptions are central to many health behavior theories. However, the relationship between risk perceptions and behavior, muddied by instances of inappropriate assessment and analysis, often looks weak. METHOD: A meta-analysis of eligible studies assessing the bivariate association between adult vaccination and perceived likelihood, susceptibility, or severity was conducted. RESULTS: Thirty-four studies met inclusion criteria (N = 15,988). Risk likelihood (pooled r = .26), susceptibility (pooled r = .24), and severity (pooled r = .16) significantly predicted vaccination behavior. The risk perception-behavior relationship was larger for studies that were prospective, had higher quality risk measures, or had unskewed risk or behavior measures. CONCLUSIONS: The consistent relationships between risk perceptions and behavior, larger than suggested by prior meta-analyses, suggest that risk perceptions are rightly placed as core concepts in theories of health behavior.     

Retesting in selection: a meta-analysis of coaching and practice effects for tests of cognitive ability

Previous studies have indicated that as many as 25% to 50% of applicants in organizational and educational settings are retested with measures of cognitive ability. Researchers have shown that practice effects are found across measurement occasions such that scores improve when these applicants retest. In this study, the authors used meta-analysis to summarize the results of 50 studies of practice effects for tests of cognitive ability. Results from 107 samples and 134,436 participants revealed an adjusted overall effect size of .26. Moderator analyses indicated that effects were larger when practice was accompanied by test coaching and when identical forms were used. Additional research is needed to understand the impact of retesting on the validity inferences drawn from test scores.     

Risk perceptions: assessment and relationship to influenza vaccination.

OBJECTIVE: Accurate measurement of beliefs about risk probability is essential to determine what role these beliefs have in health behavior. This study investigated the ability of several types of risk perception measures and of other constructs from health behavior theories to predict influenza vaccination. DESIGN: Prospective study in which students, faculty, and staff at 3 universities (N = 428) were interviewed in the fall, before influenza vaccine was available, and again early in the next calendar year. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Self-reported influenza vaccination. RESULTS: Two interview questions that asked about feeling at risk and feeling vulnerable predicted subsequent behavior better (r = .44, p = .001) than 2 questions that asked for agreement or disagreement with statements about risk probability (r = .25, p = .001) or 4 questions that asked respondents to estimate the magnitude of the risk probability (r = .30, p = .001). Of the 4 perceived risk magnitude scales, a 7-point verbal scale was the best predictor of behavior. Anticipated regret was the strongest predictor of vaccination (r = .45, p = .001) of all constructs studied, including risk perceptions, worry, and perceived vaccine effectiveness. CONCLUSION: Risk perceptions predicted subsequent vaccination. However, perceived risk phrased in terms of feelings rather than as a purely cognitive probability judgment predicted better. Because neither feeling at risk nor anticipated regret is represented in the most commonly used theories of health behavior, the data suggest that these theories are missing important constructs.     

Accentuate the Negative: Social Images in the Prediction and Promotion of Condom Use1

Based on the negativity bias in person perception, we argue that behavioral decisions related to condom use are influenced by the social images that an individual has of people who do not use condoms, but that they are not influenced by the social images that an individual has of people who do use condoms. Three studies with college student samples indicated that the negative evaluations of people who do not use condoms predicts willingness to have sex without condoms. In contrast, positive evaluations of people who do use condoms showed no unique predictions. A fourth study demonstrated that a health message emphasizing the negative social consequences of having sex without condoms decreased willingness to have unsafe sex in comparison to a control, whereas a message that emphasized the positive social consequences of using condoms had no such effects on willingness.     

Predicting male and female contraceptive behavior: a discriminant analysis of groups high, moderate, and low in contraceptive effectiveness

An exploratory, multivariate study was carried out to assess (a) whether three contraceptive-effectiveness groups (high, moderate, and low) could be differentiated on the basis of variables that have been theoretically and empirically associated with contraceptive behavior and (b) whether an identified set of discriminating variables could accurately classify sexually active college students into these groups. Three hundred sixty-five sexually active, never-married college students (211 males and 154 females) completed instruments measuring variables related to contraception. Four separate discriminant analyses were performed, one for each sex for both their initial sexual encounter and their current sexual interactions. Discrimination and classification of the three contraceptive groups for both males' and females' initial sexual experience was not very successful. Moderate discrimination was achieved for the female current sexual activity subsample and good discrimination and classification was made for the currently sexually active male subsample. The results are discussed in terms of the implications of the findings for understanding contraceptive behavior of males and females, problems with the dependent variable of contraceptive use, and the mounting evidence that emotional orientation to sexuality influences contraceptive behavior.     

Effects of reviewing risk-relevant behavior on perceived vulnerability among women marines

People generally underestimate their own vulnerability to negative events such as illness or accidents. It has been suggested that this illusion of "unique invulnerability" is due to selective focus on one's own risk-reducing behaviors, to the exclusion of others' risk-reducing behaviors and one's own risk-increasing behaviors. The current study examined the effects of reviewing sexual and contraceptive behavior on perceived vulnerability to unplanned pregnancy. Our results indicated that review of pregnancy-related behaviors decreased perceived vulnerability among two groups of subjects: those who considered unplanned pregnancy to be most undesirable and those who had the most confidence in the efficacy of their contraceptive behavior. The data also support the hypothesis that selective focus is a source of the illusion of invulnerability.