The neural correlates of reward-related trial-and-error learning: an fMRI study with a probabilistic learning task

This fMRI study investigated the neural correlates of reward-related trial-and-error learning in association with changing degrees of stimulus-outcome predictabilities. We found that decreasing predictability was associated with increasing activation in a frontoparietal network. Only maximum predictability was associated with signal decreases across the learning process. The receipt of monetary reward revealed activation in the striatum and associated frontoparietal regions. Present data indicate that during reward-related learning, high uncertainty forces areas relevant for cognitive control to remain activated. In contrast, learning on the basis of predictable stimulus-outcome associations enables the brain to reduce resources in association with the processes of prediction.     

Transfer of adaptation between ocular saccades and arm movements

Previous studies found little or no transfer of adaptation from reactive saccades to arm pointing movements, which suggests that the two motor systems rely on distinct adaptive mechanisms. However, this conclusion is based on experiments about the adaptation of response amplitudes, which is known to follow somewhat different principles than the adaptation of response directions. In the present study, we therefore investigate whether adapting the direction of reactive saccades will transfer to arm movements. We also test transfer in the opposite direction, from the arm to the eyes. Participants executed aimed saccades or arm movements from a central starting point towards visual targets in the participants' frontal plane. Targets were presented in eight possible locations along a circle of 20 cm radius about the starting point; each remained for 200 ms in one position, and was then displaced along the circle by -15 degrees . Participants from group E adapted to these double-stepped targets while executing eye movements, and were then tested for transfer while executing arm movements. The reciprocal design was used in participants from group A. Adaptive change in group A was about 14 degrees , while in group E it was only about 7 degrees . Transfer of adaptation was substantial, and was more pronounced when using the arm (i.e., eye-to-arm transfer in group E) rather than the eyes (i.e., arm-to-eye transfer in group A). Strong aftereffects were yielded in both groups. This pattern of findings implies that the adaptive change observed in our study was mainly based on recalibration rather than on cognitive strategies (strong aftereffects), that eyes and arm had access to a common adaptive mechanism (substantial transfer), and that the arm had better access than the eyes (larger adaptation and transfer when using the arm). When considering this outcome along with the available literature, it appears that arm and eyes may rely sometimes on a common and sometimes on distinct adaptive mechanisms, depending on the adapted parameter and on the nature of the motor task.     

Alternating Adaptation of Eye and Hand Movements to Opposite Directed Double Steps

Eye and hand movements can adapt to a variety of sensorimotor discordances. Studies on adaptation of movement directions suggest that the oculomotor and the hand motor system access the same adaptive mechanism related to the polarity of a discordance, because concurrent adaptations to opposite directed discordances strongly interfere. The authors scrutinized whether participants adapt their hand and eye movements to opposite directions (clockwise/counterclockwise) when both motor systems are alternatingly exposed to opposite directed double steps, and whether such adaptation is influenced by the allocation of effector to adaptation direction. The results showed that hand and eye movements adapted to opposite directions, but adaptation was biased to the counterclockwise direction. Aftereffects emerged nearly unbiased and independently for both motor systems. The authors conclude that the oculomotor and the hand motor system use independent mechanisms when they adapt to opposite polarities, although they interact during adaptation or concurrent performance.     

An Indirect Paper-and-Pencil Measure of Prejudice: A German Version of the Racial Argument Scale

Prejudices against minorities are still a cause of inter-ethnic conflict and violence, although their expression has changed from blatant to more subtle forms. There has been a shortage of valid and reliable German-language scales for the measurement of contemporary racial prejudices. The Racial Argument Scale (RAS; Saucier & Miller Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35:433–450, 2003) measures contemporary prejudice indirectly by asking respondents to judge how well given arguments support a conclusion. This scale was adapted to the German context with Turks as the target group. A validation study using a diverse sample of German adults (N = 194) attests to the reliability and construct validity of the German RAS (RAS-G). The adapted instrument is thus suitable for the indirect measurement of prejudice in German-speaking samples.     

Enhancing understanding and recall of quantitative information about medical risks: a cross-cultural comparison between Germany and Spain

In two experiments, we analyzed cross-cultural differences in understanding and recalling information about medical risks in two countries--Germany and Spain--whose students differ substantially in their quantitative literacy according to the 2003 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA; OECD, 2003, 2010). We further investigated whether risk understanding can be enhanced by using visual aids (Experiment 1), and whether different ways of describing risks affect recall (Experiment 2). Results showed that Spanish students are more vulnerable to misunderstanding and forgetting the risk information than their German counterparts. Spanish students, however, benefit more than German students from representing the risk information using ecologically rational formats--which exploit the way information is represented in the human mind. We concluded that our results can have important implications for clinical practice.     

人非理性且难教化?论支持自由家长主义的证据

基于心理学的研究, 自由家长主义者认为人们的思维有个体难以克服的、根深蒂固的系统性缺陷, 并难以通过教育来避免和消除, 因此主张因势利导, 仰仗外部专家的“助推”把人们的行为引导到正确方向。然而, 从生态理性的角度看, 人们依照自由家长主义者所谓的认知偏差做出的选择未必导致糟糕的结果, 而依照自由家长主义者所推崇的理性方法做出的选择也未必导致理想的结果。本文分析了自由家长主义者用来支持助推的证据后发现：(1)它们源于一些研究者对“何为理性”的狭隘定义, 误解了人类理性的本质; (2)它们对研究结果进行了选择性的报告, 忽视了与这些证据相反的证据。通过这些分析, 我们认为“人非理性且难教化”这一自由家长主义者的论断过于武断并有失偏颇。投入教育, 教会人们如何精明老练地处理风险不仅是可行的, 而且是替代助推的一个更为持久有效的解决方案。     

Analytische und tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapien im Gutachterverfahren

Zusammenfassung. Ein Vergleich von 94 Erstberichten der analytischen Psychotherapie und 339 Erstberichten zur tiefenpsychologisch fundierten Psychotherapie im Rahmen der Richtlinienpsychotherapie mit Hilfe der Gutachtenkriterienliste (Rudolf et al. 2002) zeigt in beiden Verfahren sehr ?hnliche Quoten der gutachterlichen Befürwortung oder Nichtbefürwortung. Vergleichbares gilt für eine Gegenüberstellung von 61 analytischen und 147 tiefenpsychologisch fundierten Fortführungsberichten. Zweifel und Bedenken der Gutachter, die sich jedoch nicht auf die Entscheidung von Befürwortung/Nichtbefürwortung der Kostenübernahme auswirken, betreffen in der tiefenpsychologisch fundierten Psychotherapie Merkmale der prognostischen Einsch?tzung bezüglich des gew?hlten Verfahrens und der erkrankten Pers?nlichkeit sowie das Thema der Differentialindikation; bei Fortführungsberichten gelten die Zweifel der bearbeiteten Konfliktdynamik und prognostischen Einsch?tzung. Eine Ungleichbehandlung der beiden Verfahren durch die Gutachter kann aus diesen Daten nicht abgeleitet werden. In der Richtlinienpsychotherapie begründen die Therapeuten den Antrag der Patienten auf Psychotherapie durch einen ausführlichen anonymisierten Bericht über die Erkrankung der Patienten und die geplante Behandlung.

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Comparison of psychoanalytic and psychodynamic expertizes

Summary. On the basis of the criteria for expertizes (Rudof et al. 2002) we compared 94 therapy recommendations after the first assessment for psychoanalytic and 339 first recommendations for psychodynamic therapy, corresponding the psychotherapy guidelines. We found very similar proportions of approving and disapproving psychotherapy. The same result was found when comparing 61 psychoanalytic and 147 psychodynamic reports in the course of the therapies. Doubts and reservations of experts in the case of psychodynamic psychotherapy are first of all related to prognostic assessment of the chosen method and of the disturbed personality including the topic of differential indication. Expertizes about the course of therapies include first of all results about the dynamics of the conflict and prognostics. Our results do not support the opinion, that experts would make a difference along the two methods.

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Anschrift: Prof. Dr. med. G. Rudolf, Psychosomatische Universit?tsklinik, Thibautstra?e 2, 69115 Heidelberg, E-Mail: gerd_rudolf@med.uni-heidelberg.de     

Dread risk, September 11, and fatal traffic accidents

Abstract— People tend to fear dread risks, that is, low-probability, high-consequence events, such as the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001. If Americans avoided the dread risk of flying after the attack and instead drove some of the unflown miles, one would expect an increase in traffic fatalities. This hypothesis was tested by analyzing data from the U.S. Department of Transportation for the 3 months following September 11. The analysis suggests that the number of Americans who lost their lives on the road by avoiding the risk of flying was higher than the total number of passengers killed on the four fatal flights. I conclude that informing the public about psychological research concerning dread risks could possibly save lives.